Figure 1.

Quantile-Quantile (QQ) Plots for Standardized Statistics and −log₁₀(P) of Score and Wald Tests

(A and B) Normal QQ plots for standardized statistics (A) and QQ plots for -log10(P) of score and Wald tests (B). Standardized statistics were calculated as raw statistics $\text{S}$ divided by the estimated variance $\widehat{\text{Var}}\left(\text{S}\right)$. p values were calculated from a normal approximation. We simulated 2$\times$10⁵ replications under three event rates (ERs) of 1%, 10%, and 50%. The sample size was 4,000, and we considered common variants (MAF = 0.3, expected MAC = 2,400) and low-frequency variants (MAF = 0.01, expected MAC = 80). MAF, minor allele frequency; MAC, minor allele counts.