TABLE 1.
Characteristics of pregnant women in the Archive for Research on Child Health study according to dietary indicators1
| Daily cup equivalents of fruits and vegetables | Teaspoons of added sugar | Percentage energy from fat | Daily servings of dairy | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | n | Mean ± SD | |
| Total sample | 309 | 3.14 ± 1.7 | 314 | 17.1 ± 9.6 | 265 | 33.0 ± 5.0 | 327 | 1.79 ± 1.1 |
| Maternal age category, y | ||||||||
| <20 | 22 | 2.77 ± 1.6 | 23 | 15.9 ± 7.7 | 21 | 33.1 ± 4.8 | 25 | 1.84 ± 1.0 |
| 20–29 | 183 | 3.12 ± 2.0 | 187 | 19.3 ± 10.8 | 162 | 33.6 ± 5.6 | 196 | 1.78 ± 1.1 |
| 30–34 | 14 | 3.64 ± 1.3 | 16 | 14.2 ± 6.8 | 13 | 32.0 ± 4.2 | 16 | 1.77 ± 0.9 |
| ≥35 | 17 | 3.21 ± 1.1 | 17 | 12.2 ± 3.3 | 14 | 32.2 ± 3.8 | 17 | 1.83 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.59 | P = 0.01 | P = 0.62 | P = 0.99 | |||||
| Prepregnancy BMI category2 | ||||||||
| Underweight | 6 | 2.03 ± 1.6 | 6 | 16.6 ± 4.4 | 5 | 41.1 ± 12.3 | 6 | 1.61 ± 1.0 |
| Normal | 116 | 3.28 ± 1.5 | 118 | 16.4 ± 9.7 | 95 | 32.5 ± 4.8 | 122 | 1.90 ± 1.2 |
| Overweight | 81 | 2.83 ± 1.6 | 84 | 18.0 ± 10.3 | 74 | 33.1 ± 4.3 | 88 | 1.78 ± 1.1 |
| Obese I | 48 | 3.53 ± 2.2 | 49 | 17.1 ± 7.2 | 44 | 32.4 ± 4.1 | 51 | 1.76 ± 0.9 |
| Obese II | 30 | 2.45 ± 1.0 | 31 | 20.0 ± 12.6 | 22 | 34.8 ± 6.9 | 31 | 1.60 ± 1.3 |
| Obese III | 28 | 3.74 ± 2.2 | 26 | 14.6 ± 6.1 | 25 | 32.4 ± 4.4 | 29 | 1.72 ± 1.0 |
| P = 0.01 | P = 0.31 | P = 0.003 | P = 0.78 | |||||
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||||
| White, non-Hispanic | 203 | 2.97 ± 1.3 | 207 | 15.7 ± 8.4 | 169 | 32.3 ± 4.2 | 212 | 1.90 ± 1.1 |
| Black, non-Hispanic | 62 | 3.62 ± 2.4 | 59 | 19.7 ± 10.8 | 54 | 35.1 ± 6.9 | 64 | 1.51 ± 1.0 |
| Hispanic | 27 | 2.81 ± 1.8 | 29 | 19.8 ± 9.9 | 27 | 32.8 ± 3.7 | 32 | 1.76 ± 1.2 |
| Other | 9 | 4.21 ± 3.5 | 10 | 23.8 ± 15.9 | 7 | 32.6 ± 4.4 | 10 | 1.49 ± 1.8 |
| P = 0.02 | P = 0.003 | P = 0.01 | P = 0.13 | |||||
| Educational level | ||||||||
| Less than HS | 40 | 3.02 ± 2.1 | 41 | 18.5 ± 9.3 | 38 | 34.0 ± 4.4 | 46 | 1.73 ± 0.9 |
| HS or equivalent | 81 | 3.22 ± 2.2 | 82 | 20.2 ± 10.7 | 71 | 32.9 ± 6.5 | 85 | 1.67 ± 1.1 |
| Some college | 79 | 2.90 ± 1.5 | 83 | 17.9 ± 10.3 | 70 | 33.1 ± 4.8 | 86 | 1.73 ± 1.2 |
| College or more | 104 | 3.37 ± 1.4 | 103 | 13.5 ± 6.5 | 82 | 32.4 ± 3.9 | 105 | 2.00 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.33 | P < 0.0001 | P = 0.40 | P = 0.16 | |||||
| Marital status | ||||||||
| Married, cohabitating | 121 | 3.21 ± 1.3 | 120 | 13.9 ± 6.7 | 92 | 32.0 ± 4.1 | 122 | 1.98 ± 1.1 |
| Married, not cohabitating | 16 | 3.67 ± 2.3 | 16 | 15.6 ± 6.4 | 13 | 31.1 ± 3.4 | 17 | 2.05 ± 1.3 |
| Unmarried, cohabitating | 96 | 2.86 ± 1.6 | 100 | 18.8 ± 10.8 | 88 | 34.1 ± 5.3 | 105 | 1.79 ± 1.1 |
| Unmarried, not cohabitating | 76 | 3.26 ± 2.4 | 78 | 20.2 ± 10.8 | 72 | 33.3 ± 5.8 | 83 | 1.47 ± 1.0 |
| P = 0.21 | P < 0.0001 | P = 0.02 | P = 0.01 | |||||
| Household income, $ | ||||||||
| <25,000 | 145 | 3.22 ± 2.1 | 145 | 19.3 ± 9.8 | 127 | 33.5 ± 5.9 | 154 | 1.73 ± 1.1 |
| 25,000– 49,000 | 68 | 2.98 ± 1.5 | 72 | 18.3 ± 11.0 | 59 | 32.9 ± 4.1 | 74 | 1.80 ± 1.1 |
| 50,000– 74,999 | 29 | 3.11 ± 1.1 | 29 | 12.1 ± 3.4 | 24 | 31.5 ± 3.3 | 29 | 1.81 ± 1.1 |
| ≥75,000 | 59 | 3.18 ± 1.2 | 61 | 12.1 ± 4.6 | 47 | 32.3 ± 3.9 | 61 | 1.95 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.83 | P < 0.0001 | P = 0.21 | P = 0.65 | |||||
| Gestational weight gain | ||||||||
| Inadequate | 77 | 2.97 ± 1.3 | 75 | 16.2 ± 8.4 | 66 | 32.9 ± 5.6 | 81 | 1.85 ± 1.2 |
| Adequate | 99 | 3.49 ± 2.1 | 101 | 17.7 ± 10.2 | 83 | 33.2 ± 4.2 | 103 | 1.83 ± 1.1 |
| Excessive | 133 | 2.98 ± 1.6 | 138 | 17.2 ± 9.7 | 116 | 32.9 ± 5.3 | 143 | 1.74 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.05 | P = 0.58 | P = 0.86 | P = 0.71 | |||||
| Depression | ||||||||
| Yes | 59 | 3.37 ± 2.3 | 58 | 19.0 ± 8.4 | 48 | 34.1 ± 5.4 | 61 | 1.65 ± 1.0 |
| No | 247 | 3.07 ± 1.6 | 253 | 16.6 ± 9.6 | 214 | 32.7 ± 4.9 | 263 | 1.83 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.23 | P = 0.08 | P = 0.08 | P = 0.24 | |||||
| PUQE score last 12 h | ||||||||
| Mild | 236 | 3.07 ± 1.6 | 239 | 16.8 ± 9.7 | 204 | 33.1 ± 4.9 | 248 | 1.81 ± 1.1 |
| Moderate/severe | 71 | 3.34 ± 2.1 | 73 | 18.1 ± 9.4 | 59 | 32.8 ± 5.5 | 77 | 1.76 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.50 | P = 0.61 | P = 0.78 | P = 0.77 | |||||
| Fetal sex | ||||||||
| Male | 171 | 3.37 ± 1.9 | 170 | 16.8 ± 9.7 | 146 | 32.8 ± 4.8 | 177 | 1.89 ± 1.1 |
| Female | 138 | 2.85 ± 1.4 | 144 | 17.5 ± 9.5 | 119 | 33.2 ± 5.3 | 150 | 1.68 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.01 | P = 0.50 | P = 0.58 | P = 0.09 | |||||
| Planned pregnancy | ||||||||
| Yes | 135 | 3.16 ± 1.4 | 139 | 15.0 ± 8.5 | 116 | 32.3 ± 4.1 | 143 | 1.84 ± 1.1 |
| No | 171 | 3.08 ± 1.9 | 172 | 18.7 ± 9.8 | 147 | 33.6 ± 5.7 | 181 | 1.76 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.68 | P = 0.0004 | P = 0.05 | P = 0.55 | |||||
| Maternal history of smoking | ||||||||
| Yes | 93 | 3.25 ± 2.3 | 92 | 21.1 ± 11.1 | 76 | 34.0 ± 6.1 | 96 | 1.76 ± 1.1 |
| No | 216 | 3.09 ± 1.5 | 222 | 15.5 ± 8.3 | 189 | 32.6 ± 4.5 | 231 | 1.81 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.47 | P < 0.0001 | P = 0.03 | P = 0.70 | |||||
| Vigorous physical activity | ||||||||
| Yes | 61 | 3.20 ± 1.3 | 65 | 15.6 ± 9.9 | 44 | 32.1 ± 5.0 | 65 | 1.86 ± 1.0 |
| No | 234 | 3.09 ± 1.8 | 235 | 17.7 ± 9.6 | 206 | 33.1 ± 5.1 | 246 | 1.75 ± 1.1 |
| P = 0.64 | P = 0.13 | P = 0.26 | P = 0.44 | |||||
| Mother receiving WIC | ||||||||
| Yes | 155 | 3.27 ± 2.1 | 159 | 19.6 ± 10.6 | 145 | 33.4 ± 5.7 | 170 | 1.78 ± 1.0 |
| No | 144 | 3.05 ± 1.2 | 145 | 14.5 ± 7.3 | 114 | 32.3 ± 3.8 | 147 | 1.81 ± 1.2 |
| P = 0.27 | P < 0.0001 | P = 0.07 | P = 0.76 | |||||
1
Values are ns or means ± SDs unless otherwise indicated. P values from ANOVA test. HS, high school; PUQE, Pregnancy-Unique Quantification of Emesis and Nausea Index; WIC, Women, Infants, and Children nutritional program.
2
BMI (in kg/m2) categories are as follows: underweight (<18.5); normal (18.5 ≤ BMI < 25); overweight (25 ≤ BMI < 30); obese I (30 ≤ BMI < 35); obese II (35 ≤ BMI < 40); obese III (≥40)