Table 2.
Characteristics of digital interventions of included studies.
| Reference | Platform | Description | Interactive | Intervention length (frequency of exposure) | HIV testing provided or facilitated | Measurement of HIV testing uptake used | Length of follow-up period for outcome | Comparator | Involvement of end users in intervention design | Theoretical framework |
| Bauermeister et al (2015) [46] | Website | Interactive, customized website (Get Connected!) that delivered HIV/STIa testing and prevention content tailored to specific participant profiles of based on psychosocial data and previous engagement with HIV testing | Yes | One time | No | Self-reported | 30 days | Control group: test-locator website | Yes | Self-determination theory principles and integrated behavioral model |
| Blas et al (2010) [47] | Online video | One 5-min video delivered through existing gay and commercial websites promoting HIV testing customized based on self-identification of participant as either gay or nongay | No | One time (5 min) | Yes—facilitated (referral) | Attendance based | 125 daysb | Control group: standard public health text | Yes | Health belief model |
| Blas et al (2014) [48] | Multiple: online videos, email/instant messaging | Motivational videos and messages about HIV testing sent through email and instant messaging, respectively | No | NRc | Yes—facilitated (referral) | Attendance based | 184 daysb | Control group: health promotion message with invitation for free HIV testing | No or not reported | None reported |
| Hirshfield et al (2012) [49] | Online video | HIV prevention videos in either dramatic or documentary style (or both), accessed via banner ads on gay-oriented sexual networking sites, and designed to promote critical thinking about HIV disclosure, testing, and condom use | No | One time (9 and 5 min) | No | Self-reported | 60 days | Control group: no content | No or not reported | Social learning theory |
| Ko et al (2013) [50] | Social media (Facebook) | Trained internet popular opinion leaders promoting HIV testing and prevention to members of a closed Facebook group | Yes | 6 months (user-dependent) | No | Self-reported | 6 months | Baseline | No or not reported | None reported |
| Patel (2016) [51] | Multiple: social media (Facebook); online live chat apps (WhatsApp); email | 16 health promotion messages promoting HIV testing framed in either approach or avoidance style of messaging sent by trained peers via their preferred modality (private Facebook group, individual WhatsApp messaging, or email) | No | 12 weeks (twice weekly) | Yes—facilitated (test locator) | Self-reported | 12 weeks | Baseline | No or not reported | Information motivation behavioral skills model |
| Rhodes et al (2011) [52] | Social media (MSMd-specific sites) | Trained peer posting regular triggers about HIV and HIV testing in existing chat room used by gay and other MSM and engaging in direct communication about testing services, processes, and locations with chat room users | Yes | 6 months (daily) | No | Self-reported | 6 months | Baseline | Yes | Natural helping |
| Rhodes et al (2016) [53] | Social media (MSM-specific sites) | Trained peer posting regular triggers in four existing social media sites used by gay and other MSM about HIV and HIV testing and engaging in direct communication with users about testing services, processes, and locations | Yes | 12 months (daily) | No | Self-reported | 12 months | Baseline | No or not reported | Empowerment education, social cognitive theory, and natural helping |
| Tang et al (2016) [54] | Online video | Online video promoting HIV testing based on a crowdsourced design accessed via banner ads placed on gay-oriented social networking platforms | No | 4 weeks (one time) | No | Self-reported | 3 weeks | Control group: noncrowd sourced online video (standard public health text) | Yes | None reported |
| Washington et al (2017) [55] | Social media (Facebook) | Five, 1-min long videos promoting HIV testing sent through a private Facebook group to black or African American MSM, with moderated group discussion | Yes | 6 weeks (weekly) | Yes—facilitated (test locator) | Self-reported | 6 weeks | Control group: closed Facebook group receiving generic health information | Yes | Integrative model of behavior change |
| Wang et al (2018) [56] | Multiple: online videos; online live chat apps (Line, WhatsApp, and Skype) | Home-based self-testing service comprising online promotional video about HIV testing, plus additional videos on home-based HIV self-testing and offer of free HIV self-testing kit and online real-time instructions and pre- and posttest counseling provided via live chat apps | Yes | 6 months (one time) | Yes—provided (HIV self-testing) | Self-reported or observed uptake of self-testing | 6 months | Control group: online video about (general) HIV testing only | Yes | Health belief model |
| Young et al (2013) [57] | Social media (Facebook) | Trained peer educators providing HIV prevention and testing messages, including 4 weekly reminders about availability of HIV home testing, to participants of a closed Facebook group | Yes | 12 weeks (user -dependent) | Yes—provided (HIV self-testing) | Requested and returned home-based HIV testing kit and followed-up results | 12 weeks | Control group: closed Facebook group receiving per-delivered generic health information | No or not reported | None reported |
| Young et al (2015) [58] | Social media (Facebook) | Trained peer educators providing HIV prevention and testing messages, including 4 weekly reminders about availability of HIV home testing, to participants of a closed Facebook group | Yes | 12 weeks (user-dependent) | Yes—facilitated (referral) | Attendance based | 12 weeks | Control group: closed Facebook group providing HIV testing information without peer leaders | No or not reported | Diffusions of innovation theory and social normative theory |
aSTI: sexually transmitted infection.
bReported as the average follow-up time.
cNR: not reported.
dMSM: men who have sex with men.