Table 2.
Prevalence of smokeless tobacco use (%) in different countries of the world according to WHO sub-regional classification
| WHO sub-regions | Country | M | F | Source | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Africa (region D) | Algeria* | 10 | 0.8 | Algeria Adult Tobacco Survey [25] | 2010 |
| Benin* | 9 | 3 | STEPS [26] | 2015 | |
| Burkina Faso* | 5.6 | 11.6 | STEPS [26] | 2013 | |
| Cameroon* | 2.2 | 3.8 | GATS [27] | 2013 | |
| Cape Verde | 3.5 | 5.8 | STEPS [26] | 2007* | |
| Chad | 1.9 | 0.4 | STEPS [26] | 2008 | |
| Comoros | 7.72 | 2.99 | DHS [28] | 2012 | |
| Gabon | 0.48 | 0.34 | DHS [28] | 2012 | |
| Gambia | 0.8 | 1.4 | STEPS [26] | 2010 * | |
| Ghana | 1.33 | 0.2 | DHS [28] | 2008 | |
| Guinea | 1.4 | 1.5 | STEPS [26] | 2009 | |
| Liberia* | 1.1 | 3.1 | STEPS [26] | 2011 | |
| Madagascar | 24.66 | 19.6 | DHS [28] | 2009 | |
| Mali | 5 | 1.2 | STEPS [26] | 2007 | |
| Mauritania | 5.7 | 28.3 | STEPS [26] | 2006 | |
| Niger | 4.55 | 2.3 | DHS [29] | 2012 | |
| Nigeria* | 2.9 | 0.9 | GATS [27] | 2012 | |
| Sao Tome & Principe | 3.8 | 1.9 | STEPS [26] | 2009 | |
| Senegal* | 0.3 | 1 | GATS [27] | 2015 | |
| Seychelles** | 0.3 | 0.4 | The Seychelles Heart Study IV [25] | 2013–14 | |
| Sierra Leone | 2.9 | 12.1 | STEPS [26] | 2009 | |
| Togo | 5.1 | 2.2 | STEPS [26] | 2010 | |
| Africa (region E) | *Botswana* | 1.5 | 6.5 | STEPS [26] | 2014 |
| *Burundi | 0.03 | 0.31 | DHS [28] | 2011 | |
| Congo (Brazzaville) | 8.3 | 1.54 | DHS [28] | 2012 | |
| Congo (Republic) | 8.67 | 3.22 | DHS [28] | 2013 | |
| Côte d’Ivoire | 0.61 | 1.27 | DHS [28] | 2012 | |
| Eritrea* | 11.6 | 0.1 | STEPS [26] | 2011 | |
| Ethiopia* | 2.6 | 0.8 | GATS [27] | 2016 | |
| Kenya* | 5.3 | 3.8 | GATS [27] | 2014 | |
| *Lesotho | 1.3 | 9.1 | DHS [29] | 2009 | |
| *Malawi | 1.9 | 5 | STEPS [26] | 2009 | |
| Mozambique | 10.94 | 0.82 | DHS [28] | 2011 | |
| Namibia | 1.8 | 2.3 | DHS [29] | 2006–07 | |
| Rwanda* | 0.6 | 3.3 | STEPS [26] | 2012 | |
| *South Africa* | 1.4 | 8.4 | South African Social Attitude Survey [25] | 2007 | |
| Swaziland* | 2.7 | 1.8 | STEPS [26] | 2014 * | |
| *Tanzania | 2.03 | 0.83 | DHS [28] | 2010 | |
| Uganda* | 1.7 | 3 | GATS [27] | 2013 | |
| Zambia* | 2.2 | 6.8 | STEPS [26] | 2017 | |
| Zimbabwe | 1.6 | 0.4 | DHS [30] | 2011 | |
| Americas (region A) | *Canada* | 0.8 | – | CTADS [31] | 2015* |
| USA | 6.5 | 0.4 | ICS [30] | 2010 | |
| Americas (region B) | Argentina | 0.1 | 0.2 | GATS [27] | 2012 |
| Barbados | 0 | 0.6 | STEPS [26] | 2007* | |
| *Brazil | 0.6 | 0.3 | GATS [27] | 2008 | |
| Costa Rica** | 0.1 | 0 | GATS [27] | 2015 | |
| Dominican Republic | 1.9 | 0.3 | DHS [29] | 2007* | |
| Grenada | 2.2 | 0.3 | STEPS [26] | 2011 | |
| Mexico* | 0.4 | 0 | GATS [27] | 2015 | |
| Panama** | 1 | 0.5 | GATS [27] | 2013 | |
| Paraguay | 3 | 1.6 | STEPS [25] | 2011 | |
| St Kitts & Nevisa | 0.3 | 0.1 | STEPS [26] | 2007 | |
| St Lucia** | 1.3 | 0.2 | STEPS [26] | 2012* | |
| Trinidad & Tobago | 0.5 | 0.3 | STEPS [26] | 2011 | |
| *Uruguay** | 0.3 | – | GATS [27] | 2009 | |
| Venezuela | 6.2 | 0.9 | National Survey of Drugs in the General Population [25] | 2011 | |
| Americas (region D) | Haiti | – | 2.5 | DHS [29] | 2005–06* |
| Eastern Mediterranean (region B) | Kuwait** | 0.5 | 0 | STEPS [26] | 2014 |
| Libya | 2.2 | 0.1 | STEPS [26] | 2009 | |
| Qatar** | 1.3 | 0 | GATS [27] | 2013 | |
| Saudi Arabia* | 1.5 | 0.3 | Saudi Health Information Survey [25] | 2014 | |
| Tunisia | 8.6 | 2.2 | ICS [30] | 2005–06 | |
| Eastern Mediterranean (region D) | Egypt* | 0.4 | 0 | STEPS [26] | 2017 |
| Iraq* | 0.4 | 0.02 | STEPS [26] | 2015 | |
| Morocco** | 4.4 | – | STEPS [26] | 2017 | |
| Pakistan* | 11.4 | 3.7 | GATS [27] | 2014 | |
| Sudan* | 14.3 | 0.2 | STEPS [26] | 2016 | |
| Yemen | 13.7 | 4.8 | National Health and Demographic Survey [25] | 2013 | |
| Europe (region A) | Austria* | 2.8 | 0.5 | Representative Survey on Substance Abuse [32] | 2015 |
| Belgium | 1.1 | 0.6 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Cyprus | 2.1 | 0.4 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Czech Republic* | 2.2 | 1.2 | The use of tobacco in the Czech Republic [25] | 2015 | |
| Denmark* | 2.3 | 0.9 | Monitoring Smoking Habits in the Danish Population [25] | 2015 | |
| Finland* | 5.6 | 0.4 | Health Behaviour and Health among the Finnish Adult Population [25] | 2014 | |
| France | 1.2 | 0.6 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Germany | 3.4 | 3.4 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Iceland* | 13 | 3 | May–December Household Surveys done by Gallup [25] | 2015 | |
| Ireland | 2.2 | 0.9 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Italy | 1.8 | 1.5 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Luxembourg | 1.8 | 1 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Malta | 5.5 | 1.5 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Netherlands | 0.3 | 0.1 | The Dutch Continuous Survey of Smoking Habits [25] | 2011 | |
| Norway* | 21 | 6 | Statistics Norway Smoking Habits Survey [25] | 2015 | |
| Portugal | 4.4 | 1.1 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Slovenia | 1.8 | 0.4 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Spain | 0.4 | 0.2 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Sweden* | 25 | 7 | National Survey of Public Health [25] | 2015 | |
| Switzerland* | 4.2 | 1.2 | Addiction Monitoring survey [25] | 2013 | |
| United Kingdom | 1.6 | 0.5 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Europe (Region B) | Azerbaijan* | 0.2 | 0 | National study of risk factors for non-communicable diseases [25] | 2011 |
| Armenia | 1.8 | 0 | DHS [29] | 2005 | |
| Bulgaria | 0.3 | 0 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Georgia | 1 | 0.2 | Survey of Risk Factors of Non-Communicable Diseases [25] | 2010 | |
| *Kazakhstan** | 2.8 | 0 | GATS [27] | 2014 | |
| Kyrgyzstan* | 10.1 | 0.1 | STEPS [26] | 2013 | |
| Poland | 1 | 0.1 | GATS [27] | 2009 | |
| *Romania | 0.4 | 0.2 | GATS [27] | 2011 | |
| Slovakia* | 1.9 | 0.8 | Tobacco and Health Education Survey [25] | 2014 | |
| Uzbekistan* | 23.2 | 0.2 | STEPS [26] | 2014 | |
| Europe (region C) | Latvia* | 0.1 | 0 | Health Behaviour among Latvian Adult Population [25] | 2014 |
| Lithuania | 1.2 | 0.2 | SEBS [33] | 2012 | |
| Moldova* | 0.1 | 0 | DHS [29] | 2013 | |
| Russia* | 0.8 | 0.1 | GATS [27] | 2016 | |
| Ukraine* | 0.4 | 0 | GATS [27] | 2017 | |
| South East Asia (region B) | Indonesia* | 3.9 | 4.8 | Basic Health Research [25] | 2013 |
| Sri Lanka* | 26 | 5.3 | STEPS [26] | 2014 | |
| Thailand | 1.1 | 5.2 | GATS [27] | 2011 | |
| South East Asia (region D) | Bangladesh* | 16.2 | 24.8 | GATS [27] | 2017 |
| Bhutan* | 26.5 | 11 | STEPS [26] | 2014 | |
| India* | 29.6 | 12.8 | GATS [27] | 2017 | |
| Maldives* | 3.9 | 1.4 | STEPS [26] | 2011 | |
| Myanmar* | 62.2 | 24.1 | STEPS [26] | 2014 | |
| Nepal* | 31.3 | 4.8 | STEPS [26] | 2013 | |
| Timor Leste* | 16.1 | 26.8 | National survey for non-communicable disease risk factors and injuries [34] | 2014 | |
| Western Pacific (region A) | Australia* | 0.6 | 0.3 | National Drug Strategy Household Survey [25] | 2013 |
| Brunei Darussalam** | 1.3 | 2.7 | Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Survey on Non-communicable Diseases [25] | 2014–15 | |
| Western Pacific (region B) | Cambodia* | 0.8 | 8.6 | National Adult Tobacco Survey of Cambodia [25] | 2014 |
| China | 0.7 | 0 | GATS [27] | 2010 | |
| Lao People’s Democratic Republic* | 0.5 | 8.6 | National Adult Tobacco Survey [25] | 2015 | |
| Malaysia* | 20.4 | 0.8 | National Health And Morbidity Survey [25] | 2015 | |
| Marshall Islands** | 13.7 | 4 | STEPS [26] | 2002 | |
| Micronesia | 22.4 | 3 | STEPS [26] | 2002 | |
| Mongolia* | 0.8 | 0.2 | STEPS [26] | 2015 | |
| Niue** | 0.3 | 0.2 | STEPS [26] | 2011 | |
| Philippines* | 2.7 | 0.7 | GATS [27] | 2015 | |
| Vietnam* | 0.8 | 2 | GATS [27] | 2015 |
CTADS Canadian Tobacco Alcohol and Drugs Survey, DHS the Demographic and Health Surveys, ICS Individual Country Survey, GATS Global Adult Tobacco Survey, SEBS The Special Europe Barometer Survey, STEPS STEPwise approach to Surveillance, WHO World Health Organization
aPopulations of St Kitts and Nevis are tiny and unlikely to affect our estimates
*Countries included in the earlier paper (n = 55), but with updated values
**New countries not included in the earlier paper (n = 12)