Table 1.
Characteristics of the study participants according to quartiles of energy-adjusted ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption, the AWHS cohort study (N = 1876)
| Energy-adjusted UPF consumption (g/day)* | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 (n = 469) | Q2 (n = 469) | Q3 (n = 469) | Q4 (n = 469) | p value | |
| Energy-adjusted UPF consumption (g/day)* | 117 ± 56 | 169 ± 66 | 263 ± 76 | 484 ± 217 | < .01 |
| Total energy intake (kcal) | 2988 ± 564 | 2685 ± 616 | 2793 ± 638.4 | 2840 ± 601 | < .01 |
| Age (years) | 51.5 ± 3.6 | 51.3 ± 3.7 | 51.0 ± 3.7 | 50.7 ± 3.9 | < .01 |
| Married (%) | 85.6 (406) | 85.5 (401) | 84.9 (398) | 85.3 (400) | .90 |
| Education (%) | .68 | ||||
| Middle school | 52.6 (245) | 49.1 (229) | 52.2 (242) | 55.0 (255) | |
| High school | 12.0 (56) | 11.8 (55) | 10.1 (47) | 10.1 (47) | |
| Professional training | 31.8 (148) | 33.5 (156) | 34.0 (158) | 30.6 (142) | |
| College | 3.6 (17) | 5.6 (26) | 3.7 (17) | 4.3 (20) | |
| Smoking (%) | < .01 | ||||
| Never | 20.6 (96) | 19.7 (92) | 26.3 (123) | 25.5 (119) | |
| Former | 29.2 (136) | 29.4 (137) | 34.1 (159) | 36.2 (169) | |
| Current | 50.2 (234) | 50.9 (237) | 39.6 (185) | 38.3 (179) | |
| Physical activity (MET-h/week) | 36.22 ± 23.8 | 31.84 ± 21.0 | 31.0 ± 22.1 | 31.5 ± 22.5 | < .01 |
| Sleep duration (hours) | |||||
| During the week | 6.3 ± 1.0 | 6.3 ± 0.9 | 6.3 ± 1.0 | 6.3 ± 1.0 | .66 |
| During the weekend | 7.3 ± 1.1 | 7.3 ± 1.2 | 7.3 ± 1.2 | 7.3 ± 1.2 | .92 |
| Body mass index (%) | .35 | ||||
| < 25 kg/m2 | 20.5(96) | 17.5 (82) | 18.8 (88) | 19.6 (92) | |
| 25 to < 30 kg/m2 | 59.9 (281) | 58.6 (275) | 57.1 (268) | 54.6 (256) | |
| ≥ 30 kg/m2 | 19.6 (92) | 23.9 (112) | 24.1 (113) | 25.8 (121) | |
| Cholesterol intake (mg/day) | 456.7 ± 139.3 | 440.5 ± 129.4 | 461.6 ± 140.6 | 460.4 ± 140.4 | .07 |
| Total cholesterol in blood (mg/dL) | 223.3 ± 36.1 | 222.1 ± 35.7 | 223.3 ± 35.4 | 220.0 ± 37.6 | .46 |
| HDL cholesterol in blood (mg/dL) | 54.1 ± 11.9 | 52.4 ± 10.9 | 52.7 ± 11.1 | 52.0 ± 11.2 | .03 |
| Blood pressure (mmHg) | |||||
| Systolic | 126.3 ± 14.3 | 125.3 ± 13.9 | 125.6 ± 14.8 | 126.6 ± 14.1 | .47 |
| Diastolic | 83.2 ± 9.6 | 82.9 ± 9.5 | 82.9 ± 9.6 | 83.8 ± 9.1 | .42 |
| Prevalent diabetes (%) | 4.5 (21) | 3.4 (16) | 4.3 (20) | 3.8 (18) | .84 |
| Alcohol consumption (g/day) | 25.2 ± 22.2 | 18.8 ± 17.7 | 20.1 ± 20.5 | 20.6 ± 18.7 | < .01 |
| Total fiber* (g/day) | 27.2 ± 7.7 | 25.2 ± 7.9 | 24.3 ± 7.0 | 23.2 ± 6.7 | < .01 |
| Omega 3 non-marine source* (g/day) | 1.6 ± 0.7 | 1.6 ± 0.6 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.6 | 0.08 |
| Omega 3 marine source* (g/day) | 0.73 ± 0.4 | 0.71 ± 0.4 | 0.67 ± 0.4 | 0.63 ± 0.4 | < .01 |
| Vitamin C* (mg/day) | 180.9 ± 72.8 | 184.4 ± 68.9 | 177.9 ± 61.5 | 178.4 ± 71.3 | .45 |
| Vitamin D* (μg/day) | 5.4 ± 3.3 | 5.5 ± 3.0 | 5.2 ± 2.8 | 5.0 ± 2.7 | .02 |
| Vitamin A* (μg/day) | 1226.4 ± 673 | 1220.6 ± 554 | 1272.4 ± 643 | 1206.7 ± 682 | < .01 |
| Vitamin E* (mg/day) | 10.5 ± 3.6 | 10.9 ± 3.2 | 11.4 ± 3.8 | 11.5 ± 3.7 | < .01 |
| Vitamin B6* (mg/day) | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 2.3 ± 0.5 | < .01 |
| Vitamin B9* (mg/day) | 379.7 ± 72.6 | 369.9 ± 71.0 | 357.4 ± 61.6 | 345.3 ± 66.6 | < .01 |
| Vitamin B12* (mg/day) | 10.1 ± 4.4 | 9.7 ± 3.4 | 9.8 ± 4.1 | 9.2 ± 4.0 | < .01 |
| Magnesium* (mg/day) | 429.6 ± 69.6 | 426.7 ± 68.3 | 415.3 ± 60.6 | 407.3 ± 61.7 | < .01 |
| Calcium* (mg/day) | 1018.9 ± 323.2 | 1035.8 ± 285.1 | 1019.0 ± 280.3 | 1019.9 ± 304.0 | .78 |
| Zinc* (mg/day) | 15.5 ± 2.1 | 14.9 ± 2.0 | 14.5 ± 1.9 | 14.3 ± 1.9 | < .01 |
| Iodine* (μg/day) | 301.3 ± 195.6 | 294.7 ± 151.1 | 276.2 ± 147.7 | 258.9 ± 156.3 | < .01 |
| Selenium* (μg/day) | 132.7 ± 27.5 | 123.0 ± 25.8 | 116. 8 ± 25.7 | 113.1 ± 26.2 | < .01 |
Continuous variables are presented as mean ± standard deviation and categorical variables as percentage (frequency, n)
p value estimates are based on one-way ANOVA (Bonferroni’s multiple-comparison test) for variables expressed as mean (standard deviation) or Pearson’s χ2 test for variables expressed as percentages
UPF ultra-processed food, Q quartiles
*Energy adjusted by the residual method