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. 2020 Jul 30;11(3):377–398. doi: 10.1007/s13167-020-00217-y

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© The Author(s) 2020

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Fig. 1 — Metabolism of glucose. The investment phase begins with the first enzyme, hexokinase (HK), which adds a phosphate group to glucose leading to the generation of glucose-6-phosphate (G6P). In the next step, phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) modifies G6P into fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). The enzyme phosphofructokinase (PFK1) transforms F6P into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP). FBP is further lysed into dihydroxyacetone (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) by fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (aldolase). The enzyme triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) converts DHAP into G3P. The payoff phase begins with the metabolisation of G3P into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BGP) by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). Next, phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) converts 1,3BGP into 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). Phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) generates 2-phosphoglycerate (2PG) from the 3PG, and 2PG then converts enolase into phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). Pyruvate kinase (PK) catalyses the final step, in which PEP is transformed into pyruvate [19, 20]. Subsequently, pyruvate undergoes oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria resulting in the generation of 36 molecules of ATP from the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). ATP, adenosine triphosphate; ADP, adenosine diphosphate; NAD⁺, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidised form); NADH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form)