Table 1.

Reading for pleasure (age 7) and SDQ (age 11).

Frequency of reading for pleasure	Strengths and difficulties	Matched on mother's data only		Matched on both mother's and father's data
		ATT (95% CI)	p	ATT (95% CI)	p
Most days vs. any other frequency	Hyperactivity/Inattention	−0.05 (−0.09, −0.02)	<0.001	−0.06 (−0.10, −0.02)	0.005
	Prosocial behaviour	0.04 (0.01, 0.08)	0.020	0.05 (0.01, 0.09)	0.023
	Emotional problems	0.01 (−0.03, 0.04)	0.721	0.00 (−0.04, 0.05)	0.952
	Peer problems	0.03 (−0.00, 0.07)	0.059	0.04 (−0.00, 0.08)	0.078
	Conduct problems	−0.00 (−0.04, 0.03)	0.824	−0.01 (−0.05, 0.03)	0.566
	Mean bias	0.7		0.8
	Rubin's B	4.0		4.8
	Rubin's R	1.06		1.06
	N	8936		7016
Most days vs. never/less often than once a year	Hyperactivity/Inattention	−0.20 (−0.29, −0.12)	<0.001	−0.21 (−0.32, −0.11)	<0.001
	Prosocial behaviour	0.09 (0.01, 0.17)	0.035	0.12 (0.03, 0.20)	0.010
	Emotional problems	−0.11 (−0.21, −0.02)	0.021	−0.13 (−0.25, −0.00)	0.043
	Peer problems	−0.06 (−0.18, 0.05)	0.283	−0.08 (−0.20, 0.04)	0.215
	Conduct problems	−0.02 (−0.10, 0.05)	0.541	−0.04 (−0.13, 0.05)	0.349
	Mean bias	3.8		4.0
	Rubin's B	25.7		25.4
	Rubin's R	1.12		1.30
	N	4479		3564

Note. Columns present ATT estimates from PSM models using Epanechnikov kernel matching with 0.05 bandwidths; common support condition is imposed. The models controlled all covariates. ATT Ninety-five percent confidence intervals in parentheses were computed by bootstrapping with 100 replications. Success of the propensity score matching was assessed using a percentage bias of <10% for each covariate, Rubin's B <25% and Rubin's R of 0.5–2. Models controlled for children's gender and ethnicity; parents' marital status, educational levels, and employment status; mental health condition of parents; the levels of closeness between parents and children; parent-child reading engagement frequency; and children's strengths and difficulties indexes at baseline.