Table 1.
Extracellular vesicle biomarkers in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).
| NAFLD stage | Vesicle source | Species | Sample | Biomarker | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protein-based biomarkers | Liver damage | ND | Human | Serum, plasma | ↑ sPTPRG | (72) |
| NASH | ND | Mice | Plasma | ↑ ASGPR1 | (73) | |
| ND | Mice | Plasma | ↑ CXCL10 | (50) | ||
| ND | Mice | Serum | ↑ CYP2E1 | (33, 50) | ||
| Hepatocytes | Mice | Plasma | ↑ VNN-1 | (55) | ||
| Hepatocytes | Mice | Plasma | ↑ ASGR1, CYP2E1 | (74) | ||
| Macrophages | Mice | Plasma | ↑ Gal3 | (74) | ||
| Neutrophils | Mice | Plasma | ↑ Ly6G | (74) | ||
| Leukocytes | Human | Serum, plasma | ↑ CD14, iNKT | (75, 76) | ||
| Cirrhosis | Hepatocytes | Human | Plasma | ↑ CK18 | (77) | |
| HCC | Hepatocytes | Human | Plasma | ↑ Hep Par 1 | (78, 79) | |
| ND | Human | Serum | ↑ EpCAM, CD133, ASGR1 | (80) | ||
| ND | Human | Plasma | ↑ANXA2 | (81) | ||
| ND | Human | Serum | ↑ PIGR | (82) | ||
| ND | Human | Serum | ↑ LG3BP | (82) | ||
| Nucleic acid–based biomarkers | NASH | Hepatocytes | Rat, human | Serum | ↑ miR-192-5p | (54) |
| Hepatocytes | Mice | Plasma | ↑ miR-122, miR192 | (73) | ||
| Hepatocytes | Human | Serum | ↑ miR-122, miR192 | (63) | ||
| Hepatocytes | Mice, human | Plasma | ↑ MitoDNA | (83) | ||
| Fibrosis | ND | Mice | Serum | ↓ miR-214 (↓Twist1 ↑CCN2) | (84) | |
| HCC | ND | Human | Serum | ↑ miR-21 | (85) | |
| ND | Human | Serum | ↓ miR-718 | (86) | ||
| ND | Human | Serum | ↑ miR-18a, miR-221, miR-222, miR-224 | (87) | ||
| ND | Human | Serum | ↓ miR-101, miR-106b, miR-122, miR-195 | (87) | ||
| ND | Human | Serum | ↑ miR-939, miR-595, and miR-519d | (88) | ||
| Lipid-based biomarkers | NASH | ND | Mice, human | Plasma | ↑ Ceramide and S1P | (51) |
ANXA2, annexin A2; ASGR1, asialoglycoprotein receptor 1; CCN2, connective tissue growth factor; CD133, cluster of differentiation 133; CD14, cluster of differentiation 14; CK18, cytokeratin 18; CXCL10, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10; CYP2E1, cytochrome P450 family 2 subfamily E member 1; EpCAM, epithelial cell adhesion molecule; Gal3, galectin 3; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; Hep Par 1, hepatocyte paraffin 1; iNKT, invariant natural killer T; LG3BP, galectin-3-binding protein; Ly6G, lymphocyte antigen 6 complex locus G; miR, mature form of the miRNA; NAFLD, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; NASH, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis ND, not defined; PIGR, polymeric immunoglobulin receptor; S1P, sphingosine 1 phosphate; sPTPRG, soluble protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor gamma; VNN1, vanin-1.