Table 1.
Studies on the effect of betamethasone in the immune system and impact on T1D.
| Species/substrates | Main findings | Expected effect on T1D | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human | ↓ NKc cytolytic capacity | Protective | (49) |
| Human | ↓ IgE synthesis by B cells | Neutral | (59) |
| Human | ↑ Insulin resistance (long-term) No effect in T1D prevalence (long-term) |
Neutral | (80) |
| Human | ↑ T1D Hazard ratio after glucocorticoid treatment | ↑ Risk | (81) |
| Human | ↑ Neutrophils ↓ Basophils, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ T cells |
Protective | (27) |
| Human (adult monocytes) | ↓ DCs costimulatory molecules ↓ IL-12p70 ↓ Th1 activation |
Protective | (37) |
| Human (adult skin cells) | ↓ LDCs costimulatory molecules and HLA-DR ↓ Proinflammatory cytokines No effects in IL-10 secretion or ILT3 expression |
Protective | (45) |
| Human (cord blood of preterm babies) | ↑ NKc activity (<32 weeks gestation) ↓ Lymphocyte proliferation No effect in IL-6 secretion |
Protective | (38) |
| Human (cord blood) | ↓ IL-6, IL-8 and TNFα secretion by macrophages | Protective | (40) |
| Human (newborn and adult) | ↓ migration and motility of newborn's neutrophils No effects in adult's neutrophils |
Neutral | (31) |
| Human (newborn) | ↓ IL-8 and CCL3 secretion from neutrophils | Protective | (33) |
| Human (newborn) | ↓ HLA-DR expression on monocytes ↓ IL-6 and IL-10 in plasma |
Protective | (35) |
| Human (newborn) | ↑ CD3+ T cells and monocytes ↓ NKc | ↑ Risk | (48) |
| Human (newborn) | ↓ CD4+ and CD25+ T lymphocytes | Protective | (54) |
| Human (pregnant women) | ↑ Leukocytes and granulocytes ↓ Lymphocytes |
Neutral | (25) |
| Human (pregnant women) | ↑ Leukocytes ↓ Lymphocytes and monocytes |
Neutral | (36) |
| Human (pregnant women) | ↑ Neutrophils ↓ Lymphocytes |
Neutral | (52) |
| Mouse (NOD) | ↓ Immunogenicity ↑ Tolerance | Protective | (30) |
| Mouse (NOD) | ↓ T1D incidence ↓ Diabetogenic Vβ TCR | Protective | (55) |
| Mouse | ↓ Impaired antigen presentation by macrophages | Protective | (41) |
| Mouse | ↓ Th1 and Th2 induction by LDCs | Protective | (46) |
| Mouse | ↑ Apoptosis of thymocytes ↓ Thymus weight | ↑ Risk | (50) |
| Sheep | ↓ IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, CCL2, and TLR4 expression | Protective | (33) |
| Sheep | ↓ IL-6 and ROS from monocytes | Protective | (34) |
| Sheep | No long-term effects Improves preterm delivery adverse effects |
Neutral | (69) |
| Sheep | No impairment of insulin sensitivity ↑ Insulin signalling pathway | Neutral | (71) |
| Rabbit | ↓ B cells IgG+ | Neutral | (58) |
CCL, C-C motif ligand; HLA, human leukocyte antigen; ILT3, immunoglobulin-like transcript 3; IL, interleukin; IgE, immunoglobulin E; IgG, immunoglobulin G; LDCs, Langerhans dendritic cells of the skin; NKc, Natural killer cells; ROS, reactive oxygen species; T1D; type 1 diabetes; TCR, T cell receptor; Th, T helper; TLR, toll like receptor; TNF, tumour necrosis factor.