Table 1.
Characteristics of the Sample (N = 525).
| Characteristics Categories | Wave 1 | Wave 4 | p-Value | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total (N = 525) n (%) | Men (n = 220) n (%) | Women (n = 305) n (%) | Total (N = 525) n (%) | Men (n = 220) n (%) | Women (n = 305) n (%) | |||
| Age (in years): Mean (SD) | 71.17 (6.20) | 70.90 (5.99) | 71.36 (6.34) | 75.1 (6.3) | 74.75 (5.98) | 75.30 (6.45) | N/A | |
| BMI (kg/m2): Mean (SD) | 24.18 (3.25) | 23.97 (3.12) | 24.32 (3.33) | - | N/A | |||
| BMI | Underweight (<18.5 kg/m2) | 17 (3.6) | 5 (2.6) | 12 (4.3) | - | N/A | ||
| Normal (18.5–22.9 kg/m2) | 152 (32.2) | 68 (35.6) | 84 (29.9) | - | ||||
| Overweight (23–24.9 kg/m2) | 122 (25.8) | 52 (27.2) | 70 (24.9) | - | ||||
| Obesity (>25 kg/m2) | 181 (38.3) | 66 (34.6) | 115 (40.9) | - | ||||
| Education | No education | 157 (29.9) | 24 (11.0) | 133 (44.0) | - | N/A | ||
| Elementary school | 225 (42.9) | 92 (42.0) | 133 (44.0) | - | ||||
| Middle school | 74 (14.1) | 53 (24.2) | 21 (7.0) | - | ||||
| High school | 49 (9.3) | 39 (17.8) | 10 (3.3) | - | ||||
| College or higher | 16 (3.0) | 11 (5.0) | 5 (1.7) | - | ||||
| Work Status | Yes | 385 (73.3) | 185 (84.1) | 200 (65.6) | 398 (75.8) | 185 (84.1) | 213 (69.8) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| No | 140 (26.7) | 35 (15.9) | 105 (34.4) | 127 (24.2) | 35 (15.9) | 92 (30.2) | ||
| Marital Status | Living with spouse | 399 (76.0) | 203 (92.3) | 196 (64.3) | 369 (70.3) | 201 (91.4) | 168 (55.1) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| Separated | 2 (0.4) | 1 (0.5) | 1 (0.3) | 3 (0.6) | 3 (1.4) | 0 (0) | ||
| Widowed | 121 (23.0) | 13 (5.9) | 108 (35.6) | 147 (28.0) | 15 (6.8) | 132 (43.3) | ||
| Divorced | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 4 (0.8) | 0 (0) | 4 (1.3) | ||
| Never married | 3 (0.6) | 3 (1.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.3) | 1 (0.5) | 1 (0.3) | ||
| Religion | No religion | 295 (56.2) | 135 (61.4) | 160 (52.5) | 244 (46.5) | 120 (54.5) | 124 (40.7) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| Protestant | 140 (26.7) | 51 (23.2) | 89 (29.2) | 169 (32.2) | 64 (29.1) | 105 (34.4) | ||
| Catholic | 28 (5.3) | 11 (5.0) | 17 (5.6) | 24 (4.6) | 9 (4.1) | 15 (4.9) | ||
| Buddhism | 55 (10.5) | 19 (8.6) | 36 (11.8) | 65 (12.4) | 19 (8.6) | 46 (15.1) | ||
| Other | 7 (1.3) | 4 (1.8) | 3 (1.0) | 23 (4.3) | 8 (3.6) | 15 (4.9) | ||
| Smoking Status | Past and current smoker | 56 (10.7) | 49 (22.3) | 7 (2.3) | 35 (6.7) | 35 (15.9) | 0 (0) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c = 0.947 |
| Past smoker but not now | 91 (17.3) | 91 (41.4) | 0 (0) | 124 (23.6) | 120 (54.5) | 4 (1.3) | ||
| Have never smoked | 372 (70.9) | 75 (34.1) | 297 (97.4) | 366 (69.7) | 65 (29.5) | 301 (98.7) | ||
| Recently started smoking | 6 (1.1) | 5 (2.3) | 1 (0.3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||
| Drinking Habit | Never | 334 (63.6) | 82 (37.2) | 252 (82.6) | 362 (69.0) | 100 (45.5) | 262 (85.9) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| Rarely | 68 (13.0) | 36 (16.4) | 32 (10.5) | 66 (12.6) | 29 (13.2) | 37 (12.1) | ||
| Once a week or more | 123 (23.4) | 102(46.4) | 21 (6.9) | 97 (18.4) | 91 (41.4) | 6 (2.0) | ||
| Hypertension | Yes | 277 (52.8) | 98 (44.5) | 179 (58.7) | 307 (58.5) | 108 (49.1) | 199 (65.2) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| No | 248 (47.2) | 122 (55.5) | 126 (41.3) | 218 (41.5) | 112 (50.9) | 106 (34.8) | ||
| Hyperlipidemia | Yes | 57 (10.9) | 23 (10.5) | 34 (11.2) | 111 (21.1) | 36 (16.4) | 75 (24.6) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| No | 467 (89.1) | 197 (89.5) | 270 (88.8) | 414 (78.9) | 184 (83.6) | 230 (75.4) | ||
| Arthritis | Yes | 219 (41.9) | 50 (22.8) | 169 (55.6) | - | - | - | N/A |
| No | 304 (58.1) | 169 (77.2) | 135 (44.4) | - | - | - | ||
| Osteoporosis | Yes | 133 (25.3) | 14 (6.4) | 119 (39.0) | 105 (20.0) | 4 (1.8) | 101 (33.1) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 |
| No | 392 (74.7) | 206 (93.6) | 186 (61.0) | 420 (80.0) | 216 (98.2) | 204 (66.9) | ||
| MMSE-DS: Mean (SD) | 24.25 (4.09) | 25.39 (3.59) | 23.43 (4.24) | 24.38 (4.18) | 25.40 (3.44) | 23.64 (4.51) | a = 0.518 b = 0.963 c = 0.428 | |
| Timed Up and Go Test (in sec): Mean (SD) | 12.56 (2.94) | 12.04 (3.01) | 12.94 (2.84) | 13.34 (3.98) | 12.70 (4.71) | 13.80 (3.31) | a < 0.001 b < 0.001 c < 0.001 | |
Note: a = comparison between Wave 1 and Wave 4 in all participants; b = comparison between Wave 1 and Wave 4 in men; c = comparison between Wave 1 and Wave 4 in women. MMSE-DS, Mini Mental Status Examination for Dementia Screening.