Table 2.

Summary of additional beneficial effects of feeding RPM during the transition period and early lactation

Biomarker	Response1,2	Site	Biological function
Metabolism
Carnitine	↑	Liver	β-oxidation of fatty acids
Cholesterol	↑↑	Plasma	Lipoprotein metabolism
One-carbon metabolism
Cystathionine beta-synthase activity	↑	Liver	Antioxidant synthesis
Cystathionine	↑	Plasma	H2S biosynthesis, redox status
Cystine	↑	Plasma	Redox status
Homocysteine	↑	Plasma	Methylation reactions
Inflammation
IL-1beta	↓	Plasma	Pro-inflammatory cytokine
Haptoglobin	↓↓	Plasma	Inflammation signal
Albumin	↑↑	Plasma	Acute-phase response
Oxidative stress
ROM	↔/↓	Plasma	Peroxides, superoxide, OH-radicals
GSH	↑↑	Liver, blood	Antioxidant
Taurine	↔/↑	Plasma	Antioxidant
Antioxidant capacity	↔/↑	Plasma	Total antioxidants in blood
Paraoxonase	↑↑	Plasma	Antioxidant enzyme

¹↑, beneficial increase; ↓, beneficial decrease; ↔, no change in concentration.

²Relative to a control or rumen-protected choline supplemented diet (Osorio et al., 2014b; Zhou et al., 2016a; Sun et al., 2016; Batistel et al., 2018); Vailati-Riboni et al., 2019).