Table A1.
List of referenced works in chronological order of publication and corresponding city/cities of investigation. Observation data and UHII, territorial and temporal frames. Bold and italic are used for mean and peak UHI to highlight when the analysis refers to SUHI and AUHI+SUHI, respectively. The abbreviation n.s. stands for non-specified.
| Ref & Year | City | Mean UHII [°C] | Peak UHII [°C] | LULCs | Season & solar condition | Observation data |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Cardelino and Chameides, 1990) | Atlanta | 2 | n.s. | 3 types: urban, suburban, rural | All seasons and any solar condition | O3 from Georgia DNR Air temperature at airport from National Weather Service Mean summer temperature at four sites (1 urban, 2 suburban, 1 rural) |
| (Yoshikado and Tsuchida, 1996) | Tokyo | 2 | 7.5 | 4 types: heavily urbanized, suburban, urban near-shore, rural residential | Winter, any solar condition | Hourly air temperature, wind speed and direction, pollutants (PMs, NO2, O3) at urban site (AQMS station) Hourly air temperature, wind speed and direction, sunshine duration at rural site (AMeDAS stations) |
| (Taha, 1996) | Los Angeles | n.s. | n.s. | 9 types: from 0 to 16,000 metric tons of vegetation biomass (2000 step size) | Summer, clear days only | Meteorological and ozone air quality data from 28 stations in 1987 and 1991 |
| (Khan and Simpson, 2001) | Brisbane | 1 | 6 | 4 types: Urban or built-up land, Agricultural land, Forest land, Large water body | Summer, clear days only | Vertical profiles of temperature, specific humidity, wind direction and wind speed from early morning radiosonde from the Brisbane airport Hourly temperature data at one urban/industrial site (Ipswich air quality station) and at a suburban area (Eagle Farm air quality station) |
| (Junk et al., 2003) | Trier | 1.2 | 2.6 | 5 types: main terrace (120 m above valley bottom), southwest City Border, 2× inner city, suburban | All seasons and any solar condition | Climatological data from 2 DWD weather stations Meteorological and air quality data (NO2, SO2, CO, O3, PM10) from 2 ZIMEN stations Ozone at suburban ZIMEN station Meteorological data from 4 automatic stations (Dept. of Climatology) Thermo-hygrographs from 5 DWD screen houses Mobile meteorological and air quality data from instrumented van |
| (Lo and Quattrochi, 2003) | Atlanta | n.s. | n.s. | 6 types: high-density urban use, low-density urban use, cultivated/exposed land, cropland/grassland, forest, water | Spring and summer, clear days only | Color-infrared aerial photographs (from NASA's Advanced Thermal and Land Applications Sensor, ATLAS) USGS digital orthophoto quads (from National Aerial Photography Program, NAPP) Land-cover map of Georgia (from ERDAS, Inc. Georgia Department of Natural Resources) USGS Levels I and II land-use digital maps |
| (Martilli et al., 2003) | Athens | 5.25 | 10 | 2 types: downtown, suburban | Summer, clear days only | O3, NO and NO2 from the MEDiterranean CAmpaign of PHOto-chemicalTracers-TRAnsport and ChemicalEvolution (MEDCAPHOT-TRACE) experimental campaign |
| (Dousset and Gourmelon, 2003) | Paris | n.s. | 7 | 6 types: water, urban densely built, suburban residential, light bare soils, densely vegetated (forest), lawns and fields | All seasons and any solar condition | Multispectral image from SPOT-2 satellite +22 images from satellites NOAA-12 and NOAA-14 Surface ozone concentration measurements (ESQUIF experiment) |
| (Jonsson et al., 2004) | Dar es Salaam | 3 (wet season) 0.75 (dry season) |
4 (wet season) 3.5 (dry season) |
2 types: urban, rural | Wet and dry seasons, any solar condition | Particulate matter, air temperature, wind speed and direction at the rural (airport) station (10 m height) Particulate matter, air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction at the urban site (2 m height) |
| (Sarrat et al., 2006) | Paris | 1.25 | 3.5 | 3 types: urban (urbanization rate > 50%), suburban (urbanization rate between 10 and 50%), rural | Summer, clear days only | 2 m air temperature and humidity at 24 Météo France stations (4 urban, 13 suburban, 7 rural) Pollutant concentrations (from ARAT aircraft measurements) |
| (Wilby, 2008) | London | 2 | 10 | 2 types: urban, rural | All seasons and any solar condition | Daily minimum temperature differences between urban and rural stations |
| (Stone, 2008) | 45 cities | n.s. | n.s. | 2 types: urban, rural | All seasons and any solar condition | LULCs and sprawl index from (Ewing et al., 2002) Number of NAAQS ozone exceedances from EPA report Annual temperature trends and average ozone season temperature from National Oceanic and Aeronautical Administration's National Climatic Data Center Population from 2000 US Census |
| (Stathopoulou et al., 2008) | Athens | 6 | 12 | 3 types: urban, suburban, rural | All seasons and any solar condition | Hourly air temperature and relative humidity (5 m height) from 23 met stations Hourly ozone, NO2 and NO (5 m height) from 3 met stations |
| (Ward et al., 2016) | Paris | n.s. | n.s. | 2 types: urban built, urban parklands | All seasons and any solar condition | Air temperature, relative humidity, precipitation and pollution in green and built-up areas (1.8 m height) |
| (Lai and Cheng, 2009) | Taichung | 3 | 5.4 | 2 types: urban, rural | Autumn, any solar condition | Hourly meteorological and air quality (PM10, PM2.5, CO2, CO, SO2) data from different governmental stations 3 h-spaced vertical meteorological data from tethersonde (at 0, 50, 100, 300, 6,001,000 m) |
| (Papanastasiou et al., 2010) | Volos | n.s. | 8.2 | 2 types: urban, suburban | Summer, any solar condition | Air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction at two sites (urban/suburban) Solar radiation at the suburban site PM10 at the urban site |
| (Khiem et al., 2010) | Tokyo | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | Summer, any solar condition | 21 years (1985 to 2005) of summer-averaged daily maximum ozone concentrations at 34 monitoring sites in the central Kanto area of Japan from the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) 21 years (1985 to 2005) of summer-averaged daily maximum temperature and wind speed at 1 monitoring site from the JMA of Japan Hourly ozone, temperature and wind speed from monitoring sites throughout the Tokyo area from NIES (1 month) |
| (Jin et al., 2011) | Shanghai | 2 | 8 | 17 types: Evergreen Needleleaf Forest, Evergreen Broadleaf Forest, Deciduous Needleleaf Forest, Deciduous Broadleaf Forest, Mixed Forest, Closed Shrubland, Open Shrubland, Woody Savannas, Savannas, Grassland, Permanent Wetland, Cropland, Urban and Built-up, Cropland/Natural Vegetation Mosaic, Snow and Ice, Barren or Sparsely Vegetated, Water | All seasons, clear days only | Monthly observations of skin temperature, albedo, and land cover data (MODIS Terra) Aerosol optical thickness (MODIS Collection 5) Aerosol optical thickness (AERONET) Regional wind circulation from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts |
| (Poupkou et al., 2011) | Thessaloniki | 0.5 (day) 1.5 (night) |
7 (day) > 7 (night) |
4 types: (urban traffic, urban industrial, rural industrial, suburban) | All seasons and any solar condition | O3 monitored at two sites (rural industrial, suburban) NO2, PM10, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction monitored at four sites (urban traffic, urban industrial, rural industrial, suburban) |
| (Krüger et al., 2011) | Curitiba | 0 | 2.2 | 2 types: urban, rural | All seasons, clear days only | Weather data from INMET rural station Air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, solar radiation and globe temperature at 2 different urban points per day |
| (Chen et al., 2011) | Houston | 1.5 | n.s. | 4 types: industrial/commercial, low-density residential, high-density residential, open space (mostly lawn grasses) | Summer, n.s. | Hourly 10 m wind speed and direction, 2 m air temperature, relative humidity from 29 Texas Commission on Environmental Quality TCEQ stations (20 urban stations out of 29) Hourly wind data from 6 wind profilers Hourly sea surface temperature from NCEP EDAS |
| (Pandey et al., 2012) | Delhi | −1.75 (day) 2.5 (night) |
−6 (day) 7 (night) |
7 types: agriculture (18.80%), fallow land (55.65%), road (1.22%), rural settlement (1.77%), urban settlement (12.30%), vegetation (9.29%), water body (0.97%) | Autumn and winter, any solar condition | Day and night thermal maps (MODIS satellite) Surface wind speed data (Safderjung Airport Site of Delhi) Atmospheric temperature at 850 and 975 hPa (radiosonde data from Wyoming University) Solar spectral irradiance (field measurements in 4 sites) Daily average PM2.5 concentrations at one site (from the Central Pollution Control Board) |
| (Merbitz et al., 2012) | Aachen | n.s. | 1.63 | 19 types: continuous urban fabric, discontinuous urban fabric, industrial or commercial units, roads and railroads, mineral extraction sites, dump sites, green urban areas, sport facilities, non-irrigated arable land, fruit trees and berry plantations, pastures, complex cultivation patterns, broad-leaved forest, mixed forest, moors and heathland, inland marshes, water courses, water bodies | Summer, any solar condition | PM, air temperature and chemical data from 3 stations (suburban, regional background and urban traffic stations) Mobile PM, temperature and relative humidity measurements along 4 bus routes PM chemical characterization by gravimetric microbalance sensor |
| (Vailshery et al., 2013) | Bangalore | n.s. | n.s. | 1 type: urban heavily trafficked | Summer, clear days only | Ambient air temperature, surface temperature, relative humidity and traffic count at 4 points per street, 10 streets PMs and SO2 at 2 points per street, 10 streets |
| (Feizizadeh and Blaschke, 2013) | Tabriz | n.s. | n.s. | 8 types: river & water bodies, green lands, bare lands, airport, under construction, market area, industry area, constructed area | Summer, n.s. | VNIR bands from ASTER satellite PMs at 8 ground-based air-pollution stations LULC from aerial photography and photogrammetric methods |
| (Klein et al., 2014) + (Hu et al., 2013a) | Oklahoma | 2 | 4.5 | 3 types: urban, suburban, rural | Summer, any solar condition | Nocturnal boundary layer profile from two sonic anemometers + sodar and wind profiler measurements (Join Urban 2003 tracer experiment) O3 data from six monitoring sites (1 urban, 4 suburban, 1 rural), NOx from 2 sites (1 urban, 1 suburban) Data from 3 Oklahoma Mesonet stations |
| (Plocoste et al., 2014) | Grand-Camp, Lauricisque, Raizet | 1.7 | 4.2 | 4 types: urban, mangrove, landfill, suburban | All seasons and any solar condition | VOCs by mass spectrometer (4 sites in the landfill, 9 in urban areas and 2 in rural sites) Tradewinds (buoys measurements) Temperature at 8 sites, 4 urban, 1 mangrove, 2 landfill, 1 suburban Hourly average temperature, wind speed and direction, rainfall intensity, nebulosity (from Météo France Guadeloupe station) |
| (Rendón et al., 2014) | Metropolitan Area of the Aburrá Valley | n.s. | n.s. | 2 types: urban, rural | n.s., clear days only | Annual carbon emissions |
| (Czarnecka and Nidzgorska-Lencewicz, 2014) | Gdańsk | 1.5 | 4 | 4 types: urban center, inland, port, coast | Summer, any solar condition | Hourly air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed + pollution concentrations (NO2, tropospheric ozone, CO, PM10,PM2.5 and SO2) at four stations |
| (Papanastasiou et al., 2015) | Athens Thessaloniki Volos |
3.5 | 5 | 2 types: urban, suburban | Summer, any solar condition | O3 monitored at three sites (center of Athens, suburb of Athens, suburb of Thessaloniki) NO2 monitored at five sites (2× center of Athens, center of Thessaloniki, suburb of Athens, suburb of Thessaloniki) PM10 monitored at six sites (2× center of Athens, center of Thessaloniki, center of Volos, suburb of Athens, suburb of Thessaloniki) Temperature and relative humidity monitored at three sites (center of Athens, center of Thessaloniki, center of Volos) |
| (Taha, 2015) | Sacramento San Francisco Fresno Los Angeles |
2 | 4 | 7 types: residential, commercial/services, industrial, transportation/communication, industrial and commercial, mixed urban or built up, other urban or built up | Summer, any solar condition | none |
| (Zhu et al., 2015) | Shanghai | 2 | 3 | 6 types: closed shrublands, croplands, water, mixed forests, savannas, urban and built-up | Summer, any solar condition | Air temperature, wind speed and wind direction from 3 monitoring sites (Kunshan, Shanghai west, Shanghai center) O3 and NOx from 5 monitoring sites (1 Kunshan, 3× Shanghai center) |
| (Cao et al., 2016) | 39 cities | 2.1 ± 0.3 (day) 3.4 ± 0.2 (night) |
5.6 | 2 types: urban, rural | All seasons and any solar condition | Surface temperature and longwave radiation (satellite observations, MODIS) Aqua land surface temperature (MODIS MYD11A2) Aerosol (MODIS Level 2 MYD04_3K) |
| (Fallmann et al., 2016) | Stuttgart | n.s. | n.s. | 3 types: low density residential (vegetation accounting for 20–70%, urban fraction = 0.6), high-density residential (vegetation <20%, urban fraction = 0.8) and industrial/commercial (urban fraction = 0.9) | Summer, clear days only | Data from 3 urban measurement stations (2 at street level, close to emission sources +1 at roof level in the urban center). Average height of 10.3 m |
| (Epstein et al., 2017) | Los Angeles | n.s. | n.s. | 6 types: nonresidential low slope, nonresidential high slope, high-rise low slope residential hotel and motel, high-rise high slope residential hotel and motel, redisential low slope, residential high slope | All seasons and any solar condition | Solar reflectance from monthly MODIS measurements Aircraft-based remote sensing measurements of rooftops in Los Angeles and Long Beach |
| (Swamy et al., 2017) | Chennai | n.s. | 4 | 3 types: background, commercial and residential | Summer, n.s. | Hourly 10 m weather data from 2 monitoring sites (background and residential) Temperature, wind speed and direction from 3 monitoring sites (background, commercial and residential) Temperature, relative humidity, ozone measured by an instrumented van at 2 sites (background and residential) Ozone data from the continuous ambient air quality monitoring station (CAAQMS) at residential and background sites Hourly 10 m wind velocity and hourly 2 m and 2500 m relative humidity from weather station and radio sounding data |
| (Li et al., 2018) | Berlin | n.s. | n.s. | 24 types: continuous urban fabric, discountinuous urban fabric, industrial or commercial, road and rail networks, port areas, airports, mineral extraction sites, dump sites, construction sites, green urban areas, sport and leisure facilities, non-irrigated arable land, fruit trees, pastures, complex cultivation patterns, agriculture & natural vegetation, broad-leaved forest, coniferous forest, mixed forest, natural grasslands, moors and heatland, transitional woodland-shrub, inland marshes, water bodies | Summer, clear days only | AOD (from MODIS MYD04_3K, Aqua satellite, dark target algorithms) LST (from MODIS MYD11_A1, Aqua satellite) Surface albedo of urban and rural areas (MODIS Albedo 16-Day L3 Global product MCD43C3) Air density, surface temperature, air temperature, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, precipitation, cloud, local climate sensitivity and energy redistribution factor from MERRA 2 reanalysis data PM10 at 12 sites (3 rural, 3 urban, 6 trafficked urban) Radiation at 7 sites (5 urban, 1 near-city rural, 1 far-city rural) Cloud at 4 sites (2 urban, 1 near-city rural, 1 far-city rural) Air temperature at 4 sites (2 urban, 1 near-city rural, 1 rural) Wind at 1 site (near-city rural) |
| (Wang et al., 2018) | 25 cities (Shanghai) | 1.24 °C | 2.27 °C | 5 types: farm land, forest, grassland, built-up area, water body | All seasons and any solar condition | Hourly ground-level O3 and NO2 from 139 air quality monitoring stations - China Environment Monitoring Center (CEMC) Land cover data from the National Geomatics Center of China (NGCC; GlobelLand30–2010) MYD11A28-day land surface temperature (LST) from MODIS (1 km resolution) Monthly NDVI from MYD13A3 product (1 km resolution) Elevation data from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM) (90 m resolution) Surface meteorological parameters and air temperature from the National Meteorological Information Center Population data from China City Statistical Yearbook |
| (Huszar et al., 2020) | Prague Berlin |
n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | All seasons and any solar condition | Gridded E-OBS data from (den Besselaar et al., 2011) O3 and PM2.5 surface concentrations from the European Environment Agency AirBase station data |
| (Ulpiani et al., 2020) | Sydney | 0.5 | 7 | 2 types: urban, suburban | Summer, any solar condition | 1 min, 1.1 m air temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure, precipitation, wind (speed and direction), solar radiation, UV radiation, UV index, PM1, PM2.5 and PM10, at the urban site Hourly air temperature data from 7 BoM stations in Greater Sydney (2000–2017) |