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. 2020 Aug 18;20(11):63. doi: 10.1007/s11882-020-00958-w

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — TGF-β participates in the regulation of airway inflammation and remodeling process. Three TGF-β isoforms have been found in the human body, respectively: TGF-β1, TGF-β2, TGF-β3.TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3 are localized on chromosomes 19q13, 1q41 and 14q24, respectively. A promoter for TGF-β2 and TGF-β3 isoforms possesses in its structure a classical TATAA box domain and a CRE-ATF terminal region. TGF-β1 stimulates fibroblast activation and promotes the differentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and accelerates collagen synthesis in tissue remodeling. Differentiated myofibroblasts increased the expression of ECM components such as fibronectin, promoting massive amounts of ECM deposition, which leads to tissue remodeling. In addition, TGF-β1 binds to receptor TGFβ-IIR and activates Smad signal transduction pathway. TGF-β1 is an important factor in the transactivate MUC5AC promoter activity through Smad4 and Sp1.TGF-β1-Smad3/4 signaling acts as a negative regulator via MAPK14. Inhibitor in MUC5AC transcription. (MAPK14:Mitogen-activated protein kinase 14; Sp1:specificity protein 1)