Table 5.

Mechanisms of action of botanicals against the Ae. aegypti mosquito.

Target Site	Mechanism of Action	Compound	Plant Species	Reference
Nervous system	Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE)	Essential oil	Illicium verum, Pimenta dioica and Myristica fragrans	[54]
		Nanoemulsion with essential oil	Pterodon emarginatus	[66]
	Not specified	Ethanolic extract	Piper longum, Piper ribesoides and Piper sarmentosum	[109]
Gut trypsin	Inhibition of trypsin and consequent decreased absorption of nutrientes and essential aminoacids	Aqueous extract	Moringa oleifera	[147]
		Essential oil	Croton rhamnifolioides	[70]
Peritrophic matrix	Change in internal morphology and consequent insect protection dysfuntion	Methanol extracts	Derris (Lonchocarpus) urucu	[100]
		Nilocetin	Limonia acidissima	[99]
Midgut epithelium	Tissue destruction and cell disorganization	Methanol extracts	Derris (Lonchocarpus) urucu	[100]
		Pellitorine	Asarum heterotropoides	[148]
		Grandisin	Piper solmsianum	[139]
Anal papillae	Morphological changes, interference with the larva swin	Crude extracts	Dalbergia brasiliensis	[89]
		Ethanolic extract	Piper longum, Piper ribesoides and Piper sarmentosum	[109]
Respiratory siphon	Morphological changes, interference with the oxygen flow	Crude extracts	Dalbergia brasiliensis	[89]
		Nanoemulsion with limonene	Baccharis reticularia	[68]
Anal gills	Comprehensive damage; debris in hemolymph	Pellitorine	Asarum heterotropoides	[148]
Thorax and exoskeleton	Changes in external morphology, interfering with the molting process	Crude extracts	Dalbergia brasiliensis	[89]
		Pellitorine	Asarum heterotropoides	[148]
		Nilocetin	Limonia acidissima	[99]
		Nanoemulsion with limonene	Baccharis reticularia	[68]
Digestive system	Digestive toxicity	Crude extracts	Dalbergia brasiliensis	[89]