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Protective roles of carotenoids during neuronal apoptosis. ROS: reactive oxygen species. ROS can trigger both death receptor- and mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathways. As an antioxidant, carotenoids scavenge ROS to prevent ROS-induced apoptotic pathways. Carotenoids manipulate numerous cell-signaling pathways including Erk, Akt, and NF-κB to enhance transcription of genes that promote antioxidant defense, anti-inflammation, and anti-apoptosis, illustration done using BioRender.
