Table 4.
Application of nanocellulose in different fields.
| NC Type | Production Method | Composites | Application | Description | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MFC | Mechano-enzymatic | MFC/ lignosulphonate (LS) |
Carbon precursors | MFC/LS hydrogels were used in the manufacture of carbon objects by 3D printing and carbonization | [171] |
| CNF | Mechanical refinement and enzymatic treatment | CNFs/alginate | Cartilage tissue engineering | CNF/alginate bioink was used for 3D bioprint of human-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into cartilage mimics in co-cultures with irradiated chondrocytes | [172] |
| CNF | Enzymatic hydrolysis with mechanical shearing and high-pressure homogenization |
CNFs/alginate | Cartilage tissue engineering | CNF/alginate bioink was used for 3D bioprint human chondrocytes. |
[173] |
| CNF | Mechano-enzymatic | CNFs/chitosan | Intervertebral disc tissue engineering | CNF/chitosan formulation was injected in the intervertebral disc to restore damaged/degenerated discs | [174] |
| CNF | Enzymatic | CNFs/clays | Fire protection | Clay nanopaper was prepared using CNF/clay nanocomposites and evaluated for fire protection | [175,176] |
| CNC | Enzymatic/ mechanical |
CNCs/paper | Packaging | CNCs were incorporated in paper to improve its properties | [101] |