Table 2.
Relative rates (RRs) [95% credible intervals], opioid use disorders or poisonings hospitalizations, Bayesian spatial misalignment models (n = 8,536 ZIP codes)
| Variable | Model 1: Opioid use disorders RR [95% credible interval] | Model 2: Opioid poisonings RR [95% credible interval] |
| Marijuana dispensaries, per sq. mi. | 1.045 [1.033, 1.058]b | 1.036 [1.019, 1.053]b |
| Marijuana dispensaries, per sq. mi., lag | 0.911 [0.881, 0.941]b | 0.892 [0.858, 0.928]b |
| Manual labor, number of establishments per sq. mi. (×10) | 1.005 [1.003, 1.006]b | 1.003 [>1.000, 1.005]b |
| Retail clutter, number of establishments per sq. mi. (×10) | 1.003 [>1.000, 1.005]b | 1.004 [1.001, 1.007]b |
| Year | 1.013 [1.005, 1.022]b | 1.001 [0.988, 1.015] |
| Demographic and environmental covariates | ||
| Overall hospitalization rate, per 100 people | 2.318 [2.169, 2.475]b | 2.134 [1.953, 2.310]b |
| Age in years, % | ||
| 0–19 | 0.987 [0.982, 0.992]b | 0.985 [0.978, 0.992]b |
| 20–24 | 1.085 [1.062, 1.109]b | 1.085 [1.052, 1.118]b |
| 25–44 | 0.976 [0.972, 0.980]b | 0.970 [0.965, 0.975]b |
| 45–64 | 1.026 [1.021, 1.032]b | 1.020 [1.012, 1.028]b |
| Race/ethnicity, % | ||
| Asian | 0.981 [0.980, 0.982]b | 0.982 [0.981, 0.984]b |
| Non-Hispanic Black | 1.006 [1.004, 1.008]b | 1.002 [0.999, 1.004] |
| Hispanic | 0.989 [0.988, 0.991]b | 0.988 [0.986, 0.989]b |
| Male, % | 0.995 [0.989, 1.001] | 1.000 [0.991, 1.008] |
| Population density, per sq. mi.a | ||
| Quartile 2 | 1.232 [1.171, 1.296]b | 1.341 [1.237, 1.455]b |
| Quartile 3 | 1.408 [1.322, 1.499]b | 1.545 [1.409, 1.694]b |
| Quartile 4 | 1.381 [1.286, 1.482]b | 1.526 [1.380, 1.688]b |
| Economic conditions | ||
| Below 150% of poverty level, % | 1.015 [1.014, 1.017]b | 1.012 [1.010, 1.015]b |
| Below 150% of poverty level, %, lag | 0.997 [0.995, 0.999]b | 0.996 [0.993, 0.999]b |
| Median household income, per $10,000 | 0.921 [0.912, 0.930]b | 0.889 [0.877, 0.902]b |
| Unemployment, % | 0.990 [0.988, 0.992]b | 0.992 [0.989, 0.996]b |
| Misalignment effects | ||
| ZIP code instability | 0.997 [0.988, 1.006] | 1.000 [0.982, 1.016] |
| Random effects | ||
| Spatial random effects (s.d. CAR process) | 0.559 [0.553, 0.566] | 0.366 [0.361, 0.372] |
| ZIP code–level random effects (s.d.) | 0.104 [0.071, 0.142] | 0.203 [0.170, 0.237] |
| Spatial to total random variability ratioc | 0.967 [0.939, 0.984] | 0.765 [0.704, 0.823] |
Notes: Sq. mi. = square mile; CAR = conditional autoregressive. aPopulation density was divided into equal quartiles as follows: 1 (referent; 41.52 < people / mi2), 2 (41.52–732.10), 3 (732.11–5053.76), and 4 (> 5053.76); bindicates findings that are well supported by the data as evidenced by credible intervals that exclude one for relative risks; ccalculated as the variance ratio of spatial to spatial and nonspatial random effects.