Table 2.
Characteristics of included studies evaluating the associations between eating behaviors and SAD.
| First author, year, country | Study design, SAD screen tool | Total subjects, age (mean), Patients N | Diet, diet assessment tool | Outcome, outcome assessment tool |
Means/ frequencies |
Comparison | OR (CI) or p values | Conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Donofry SD, 2014, USA | Cross-sectional, DSM-IV-TR | 112, 41.8, 112 | Binge eating, QEWP-R | Binge eating, QEWP-R | 26.5% among SAD patients | NA | NA | Logistic regression adjusting for age and gender showed that the spectrum of eating pathology in SAD patients involve binge eating |
| Weekly binge eating, QEWP-R | 11.6% among SAD patients | NA | NA | |||||
| Binge eating defined by DSM-IV-TR, QEWP-R | 8.9% among SAD patients | NA | NA | |||||
| GSS, SPAQ | 16.3 ± 3.6 for binge eating patients, and 14.9 ± 4.2 for non-clinical subjects | Binge eating patients vs. non-clinical subjects | OR = 1.057, p = 0.40 | |||||
| Krauchi K, 1996, Switzerland | Case-control, Rosenthal criteria or DSM-III-R | 164, NR, 84 | Eating disorders, DEBQ | External eating, DEBQ | NR | Case vs. Control | p < 0.001 | One-way ANOVA with Bonferroni adjustment showed that compared with normal control and stressful subjects (control II), SAD patients had higher tendency for 'external eating' (food intake steered by external stimuli) and 'emotional eating' (eating simulated by anxiety, insecurity, irritability, and depression), but similar 'restraint eating' (restrict food intake for weight control). |
| Emotional eating, DEBQ | NR | Case vs. Control | p < 0.001 | |||||
| Restraint eating, DEBQ | NR | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Conditional food intake, Added questions to DEBQ | Consume sweets when depressed, Added questions to DEBQ | 57.1% for case, and 13.2% for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 | One-way ANOVA with Bonferroni adjustment showed that compared with normal control and stressful subjects (control II), the percentage of consuming sweets when experiencing emotional eating (depression, anxiety, loneliness) was higher among SAD patients. Conditional food intake of other food items were similar between case and control during external eating and restraint eating. | |||
| Consume starch when depressed, Added questions to DEBQ | 17.9% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume fruits when depressed, Added questions to DEBQ | 2.4% for case, and 0% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume caffeine when depressed, Added questions to DEBQ | 21.4% for case, and 21.1% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume alcohol when depressed, Added questions to DEBQ | 14.3% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume dairy products when depressed, Added questions to DEBQ | 11.9% for case, and 5.3% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume sweets when anxious, Added questions to DEBQ | 27.4% for case, and 5.3% for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 | |||||
| Consume starch when anxious, Added questions to DEBQ | 10.7% for case, and 0% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume fruits when anxious, Added questions to DEBQ | 3.6% for case, and 0% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume caffeine when anxious, Added questions to DEBQ | 8.3% for case, and 10.5% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume alcohol when anxious, Added questions to DEBQ | 16.7% for case, and 10.5% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume dairy products when anxious, Added questions to DEBQ | 9.5% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume sweets when lonely, Added questions to DEBQ | 38.1% for case, and 7.9% for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 | |||||
| Consume starch when lonely, Added questions to DEBQ | 9.5% for case, and 5.3% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume fruits when lonely, Added questions to DEBQ | 4.8% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume caffeine when lonely, Added questions to DEBQ | 10.7% for case, and 7.9% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume alcohol when lonely, Added questions to DEBQ | 14.3% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume dairy products when lonely, Added questions to DEBQ | 7.1% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume sweets when bored, Added questions to DEBQ | 20.2% for case, and 15.8% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume starch when bored, Added questions to DEBQ | 9.5% for case, and 7.9% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume fruits when bored, Added questions to DEBQ | 7.1% for case, and 10.5% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume caffeine when bored, Added questions to DEBQ | 10.7% for case, and 13.2% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume alcohol when bored, Added questions to DEBQ | 6.0% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume dairy products when bored, Added questions to DEBQ | 8.3% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume sweets during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 22.6% for case, and 15.8% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume starch during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 6.0% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume crackers during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 2.4% for case, and 0% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume protein during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 1.2% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume fruits during external eating | 1.2% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume caffeine during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 6.0% for case, and 13.2% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume alcohol during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 14.3% for case, and 10.5% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume dairy products during external eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 2.4% for case, and 2.6% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume sweets during restraint eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 53.6% for case, and 42.1% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume starch during restraint eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 33.3% for case, and 15.8% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume protein during restraint eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 7.1% for case, and 10.5% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume fat during restraint eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 19.0% for case, and 23.7% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Consume alcohol during restraint eating, Added questions to DEBQ | 6.0% for case, and 10.5% for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Berman K, 1993, Canada | Case-control, DSM-III-R | 60, 32.8a, 30 | Dysfunctional eating, EDI | Bulimia, EDI | 3.3 ± 4.2 for case, and 0.9 ± 1.9 for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 | post hoc student-newman-keuls tests for pairwise comparisons (case vs. control vs. bulimia nervosa patients) showed more severe bulimia disorders in SAD patients compared to non-clinical subjects. |
| Krauchi K, 1987, Switzerland | Case-control, DSM-III | 54, 40.7a, 28 | Food frequency, FDFQ | Breakfast in weekdays (meal/month), FDFQ | 21.0 ± 5.1 for case, and 15.4 ± 9.6 for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 | One-way ANOVA showed that compare with control, SAD patients consumed significantly more dinners and evening snacks during weekdays and weekends. |
| Morning snacks in weekdays (meal/month), FDFQ | 6.1 ± 6.5 for case, and 6.7 ± 7.2 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Lunch in weekdays (meal/month), FDFQ | 20.5 ± 6.2 for case, and 21.1 ± 3.6 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Afternoon snacks in weekdays (meal/month), FDFQ | 8.7 ± 7.0 for case, and 6.1 ± 6.6 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Dinner in weekdays (meal/month), FDFQ | 22.7 ± 3.7 for case, and 21.1 ± 4.0 for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 | |||||
| Evening snacks in weekdays (meal/month), FDFQ | 8.6 ± 7.5 for case, and 2.9 ± 3.7 for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.001 | |||||
| Breakfast in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 2.1 ± 1.6 for case, and 1.8 ± 1.5 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Morning snacks in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 0.1 ± 0.4 for case, and 0.2 ± 0.5 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Brunch in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 2.0 ± 1.5 for case, and 1.7 ± 1.4 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Lunch in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 1.4 ± 1.5 for case, and 1.6 ± 1.4 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Afternoon snacks in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 1.7 ± 1.2 for case, and 1.2 ± 1.0 for control | Case vs. Control | p > 0.05 | |||||
| Dinner in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 3.8 ± 0.5 for case, and 3.4 ± 0.7 for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.01 | |||||
| Evening snacks in weekends (meal/month), FDFQ | 1.3 ± 1.4 for case, and 0.5 ± 0.5 for control | Case vs. Control | p < 0.05 |
DSM, Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental disorders; QEWP-R, Questionnaire on Eating and Weight Patterns-Revised; DEBQ, Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire; SPAQ, Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire; GSS, Global Seasonality Score; SCID, DSM-IV Structured Clinical Interview for Depression; FDFQ, Food/Drink Frequency Questionnaire; EDI, Eating Disorders Inventory; NA, Not available; NR, Not report; Bold text, Statistically significant.
a
Calculated according to the information provided.