Table 2.

Summary of the Organoids Generated from Pluripotent Stem Cells (PSCs) to Study Organ Development

Type	PSC Source	Key Features/Cell Types	References
Ectodermal Organoids
Cerebral organoid	Human ESC	1.Formation of cerebral cortical neurons, choroid plexus, hippocampus, radial glial cells. 2.Model human microcephaly.	Lancaster et al., 2013
Forebrain spheroids (brain assembloid)	Human ESC	1.Model dorsal and ventral forebrain. 2.Contain cortical glutamatergic or GABAergic neurons.	Birey et al., 2017
Choroid plexus organoid	Human ESC	1.Formation of blood-brain barrier 2.Cerebrospinal fluid production.	Pellegrini et al., 2020
Pituitary organoid	Mouse ESC	1.Pituitary progenitors committed to form endocrine tissues. 2.Transplantation can rescue hypopituitary in mice	Suga et al., 2011
Retinal organoid (optic cup)	Mouse ESC, Human ESC	1.Formation of optic vesicle. 2.Generation of rod and cone cells.	Eiraku et al., 2011; Völkner et al., 2016
Skin organoid	Mouse ESC	1.Epidermal and dermal layers with de novo hair follicle development. 2.Presence of specialized cutaneous cell types including melanocytes, sebaceous glands, hair shaft, and dermal papilla.	Lee et al., 2018
	Human ESC	1.Epidermal and dermal layers with de novo hair follicle development. 2.Network of sensory neurons and Schwann cells that interacts with Merkel cells associated with human touch. 3.Able to form hair follicle after grafting under skin.	Lee et al., 2020
Inner ear organoid	Mouse ESC	1.Presence of mechanosensitive hair cells and specialized neurons.	Koehler et al., 2013
	Human ESC	1.Contains vestibular-like hair cells. 2.Show similar electrophysiological properties as native hair cells.	Koehler et al., 2017
Mesodermal Organoids
Cardiac organoid	Human ESC	1.Cardiomyocyte proliferation. 2.Resembles fetal heart. 3.Modeling regenerative response following cryoinjury.	Hofbauer et al., 2020; Voges et al., 2017
Kidney organoid	Human ESC Human iPSCs	1.Differentiate into ureteric epithelium resembling embryonic kidney. 2.Can vascularize into glomerulus-like structures with interconnecting renal tubules and collecting ducts.	Morizane et al., 2015; Takasato et al., 2015
Endodermal Organoids
Lung organoid	Human ESC	1.Formation of alveolar and airway-like structures, presence of basal and secretory cells. 2.Used for cystic fibrosis modeling	Dye et al., 2015; Jacob et al., 2017; McCauley et al., 2017
Esophageal organoid	Human ESC	1.Consists of proliferative basal progenitors and differentiated stratified squamous epithelium.	Trisno et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018
Liver organoid	Human iPSCs	1.Interaction between endothelial cells and mesenchymal cells. 2.Functional vascular network.	Takebe et al., 2013
Hepatic-biliary-pancreatic organoid	Human ESC/iPSC	1.Invaginating liver, bile duct, and pancreatic-like tissue. 2.Formation of bile ducts and hepatic epithelium following transplantation in mice	Koike et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2019
Gastric organoid	Mouse ESC Human ESC	1.Differentiate into antral and fundus cell types, mucus-producing cells 2.Modeling Helicobacter pylori infection	McCracken et al., 2014, 2017
Pancreatic organoid	Human ESC	1.Differentiate into ductal and acinar cells similar to human fetal pancreas.	Hohwieler et al., 2017
Intestinal organoid	Human ESC	1.Characteristic villus and crypt-like structures. 2.Recapitulates duodenum and ileum. 3.Assembled with functional enteric nervous system	Spence et al., 2011; Tsai et al., 2017; Watson et al., 2014; Workman et al., 2017