Table 1.

Generalized mangrove forest damage descriptions relative to Saffir–Simpson tropical cyclone intensity ratings (after Myers and van Lear, 1998 ).

Category	Wind speed, km h–1	Description
1	119–153 (74–95 miles h–1)	Shrubby mangroves, trees and foliage are damaged, but lightly, with few being fully susceptible to mortality through stem breakage or tip-ups. Litter and small branch fall limited to weaker structures or species with less dense wood, and is probably compensatory to what would fall ordinarily in the coming months. Seedlings and saplings with minor damage, but not generally from wind vs. woody debris, tree/branch fall and surge. Surge to 1.2–1.5 m above normal. Wrack deposition limited but notable, probably containing re-deposited mangrove seeds (when applicable) and propagules. Sedimentation low with minimal contributions from re-suspended estuarine components. Coastal built structures (e.g. piers and signs) sustain minor damage. Roads that are low lying are inundated, especially if storm impacts at high tide. No peat collapse expected after the storm.
2	154–177 (96–110 miles h–1)	Shrubby mangroves, trees and foliage damaged considerably, with many large trees blown down through stem snapping (especially trees of lighter wood densities) and tip-ups. Litter and branch fall extensive and includes compensatory and additive components to what would fall ordinarily in the coming months. Seedlings and saplings with moderate damage, sustaining only small portion of that damage from wind vs. woody debris, tree/branch fall and surge. Surge to 1.8–2.4 m above normal. Wrack deposition extensive, containing re-deposited mangrove seeds (when applicable), propagules, wood, seagrass, shells, human-sourced debris, etc. Sedimentation moderate and would include re-suspended estuarine components, especially if surrounding estuaries are shallow (<2–3 m deep). Considerable damage to coastal built structures, with many roads being inundated 2–4 h in advance of the approaching storm. Peat collapse expected after the storm only in forests of lower productivity from previous human impact.
3	178–208 (111–130 miles h–1)	Mangroves of all sizes highly susceptible to wind fall as they reach a wind velocity threshold established by Category 3 designation (Doyle et al., 1995), especially species with lighter wood densities; nearly all large trees blown down or snapped, and smaller trees and shrubs sustaining moderate to heavy damage, often having damage to vascular structures if they do not break. Litter and branches ripped from trees, with extensive additive volumes of debris fall, affecting growth phenology of surviving mangrove trees into the next few growing seasons. Seedlings with moderate damage and saplings with heavy damage from wind, woody debris, tree/branch fall and surge. Surge to 2.7–3.6 m above normal. Wrack deposition extensive, containing similar elements to Category 2 storms but also including larger debris (e.g. trees) and larger human-sourced debris capable of physically damaging the mangrove forest. Sedimentation extensive (up to 40 mm) from upland, resuspended and autochthonous sources capable of covering emergent root lenticels. Great damage to coastal built structures, with debris from that damage infiltrating mangrove forests from wind throw and water. Most roads are inundated 3–5 h in advance of the approaching storm. Peat collapse expected in some forests after the storm, and imminent in forests of lower productivity from previous human impact.
4	2109–251 (131–155 miles h–1)	All trees are affected extensively, with most trees and shrubs blown down or snapped, and saplings and smaller trees often sheared off (Craighead and Gilbert, 1962) in lieu of simply sustaining damage to vascular structures. Canopy loss of foliage and small branches extensive, both leading to delayed mortality of small surviving trees from foliage loss and affecting growth phenology for surviving mangrove trees into the next few growing seasons. Seedlings and saplings with moderate to heavy damage from all sources, often having to re-adjust to post-storm light intensities through new leaf development in order to ensure survival. Surge to 3.9–5.5 m above normal, submerging small statured mangrove forests aligning fringe locations with ocean water and serving (paradoxically) to buffer those small trees from wind damage in some cases. Terrestrial flooding extending to approx. 10 km inland. Wrack deposition extensive, containing similar elements to Category 2 storms but also including larger debris (e.g. trees) and larger human-sourced debris that physically damages the mangrove forest. Sedimentation even more extensive (up to 40–60 mm) from upland, resuspended and autochoctanous sources capable of covering emergent root lenticels and, in some cases, facilitating deposition of intact sections of soil from nearby damaged wetlands on top of the forest floor. Catastrophic damage to coastal built structures (including many homes), with debris from that damage infiltrating mangrove forests from wind throw and water. Roads are inundated 3–5 h in advance of the approaching storm. Beach erosion extensive, with new channels being forged through creeks and barrier islands, especially those areas without significant mangrove colonization. Peat collapse imminent after storm.
5	≥252 (> 155 miles h–1)	Catastrophic damage incurred by mangrove forests, with 90–100 % destruction being noted in eyewall and immediate right quadrat areas in the northern hemisphere or left quadrat areas in the southern hemisphere. Shrubby mangroves, trees and saplings destroyed with only a few remaining seedlings, probably damaged by debris falling from broken canopies and debris in surge. Surge to >5.5 m above normal, submerging small statured mangrove forests aligning fringe locations with ocean water and serving (paradoxically) to buffer trees from wind damage in some cases. Terrestrial flooding extending to approx. 16 km inland. Wrack deposition extensive, containing similar elements to Category 2 storms but also including larger debris (e.g. trees) and larger human-sourced debris that physically damages the mangrove forest. Sedimentation extensive (>60 mm) from upland, resuspended and autochoctanous sources capable of covering lenticels on large segments of prop roots and entire pneumatophore structures, and facilitating deposition of intact sections of soil from nearby damaged wetlands deposited on top of the forest floor. Catastrophic damage to coastal built structures (including many homes, municipal structures and roads), with debris from that damage infiltrating mangrove forests from wind throw and water. Roads are inundated 4–7 h in advance of the approaching storm. Extensive beach erosion with and without established vegetation, with new channel formation through barrier islands and mangrove forests. Extensive surge and wave scouring evident, undermining mangrove roots. Peat collapse guaranteed after storm.