Table 3.
Breakfast Consumption and Its Associations with Mental Health and Academic Performance
| Variables | Breakfast Intake | UOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI)A |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mental health | |||
| Depression (severe) (12.9%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.25 (1.06, 1.49)* 1.82 (1.65, 2.00)*** |
1 (Reference) 1.10 (0.95, 1.26) 2.13 (1.84, 2.45)*** |
| Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (21.8%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.23 (1.05, 1.43)* 1.57 (1.29, 1.91)*** |
1 (Reference) 1.14 (0.96, 1.35) 1.61 (1.32, 1.97)*** |
| Loneliness (9.9%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.19 (1.03, 1.37)* 1.58 (1.34, 1.87)*** |
1 (Reference) 1.17 (1.01, 1.35)* 1.56 (1.33, 1.84)*** |
| Happiness (61.3%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 0.93 (0.87, 0.99)* 0.82 (0.75, 0.89)*** |
1 (Reference) 0.98 (0.90, 1.07) 0.84 (0.75, 0.93)*** |
| Short sleep (46.8%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.35 (1.20, 1.53)*** 1.58 (1.36, 1.82)*** |
1 (Reference) 1.38 (1.23, 1.56)*** 1.58 (1.32, 1.89)*** |
| Long sleep (12.9%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 0.98 (0.81, 1.17) 1.39 (1.15, 1.69)*** |
1 (Reference) 0.98 (0.82, 1.18) 1.39 (1.15, 1.68)*** |
| Sleep problem (severe) (9.3%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1.49 (1.16, 1.92)** 2.32 (1.87, 2.87)*** 1 (Reference) |
1 (Reference) 1.55 (1.25, 1.92)*** 2.41 (1.99, 2.92)*** |
| Restless sleep (much or most of the time) (19.9%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.18 (1.03, 1.35)* 1.79 (1.64, 1.97)*** |
1 (Reference) 1.14 (0.99, 1.32) 1.89 (1.59, 2.24)*** |
| Sleep problem (traumatic event) (26.6%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.19 (1.04, 1.37)* 1.56 (1.51, 2.13)*** |
1 (Reference) 1.20 (1.05, 1.36)** 1.66 (1.38, 2.00)*** |
| Academic performance (poor) (7.7%) | Almost daily Sometimes Rarely/never |
1 (Reference) 1.14 (0.97, 1.35) 1.49 (1.19, 1.85)*** |
1 (Reference) 0.98 (0.83, 1.16) 1.40 (1.11, 1.78)** |
Notes: ***P<0.001; **P<0.01; *P<0.05; AAdjusted for age, sex, subjective economic status, residence status, country, social support, and religiosity.
Abbreviations: UOR, unadjusted odds ratio; AOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.