Table 3.
Factors associated with past-year use of individual complementary, integrative and non-drug therapies for pain. Results are presented as risk differences (RD) calculated from multivariable logistic regressions. Analyses adjusted for all listed variables and for Charlson comorbidity index, which as a continuous variable was not associated with use of any non-drug therapy. BPI-I: Brief Pain Inventory–Interference. ME: Morphine equivalent, milligrams/day.
| Psychological / behavioral therapies | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psychotherapy RD (95% CI) |
Meditation RD (95% CI) |
Relaxation RD (95% CI) |
||
| Age Ref: <55 | ||||
| 55–64 | −0.054 (−0.11, 0.0031) | −0.080 (−0.15, −0.012) | −0.10 (−0.17, −0.035) | |
| 65–74 | −0.13 (−0.19, −0.070) | −0.16 (−0.23, −0.091) | −0.21 (−0.28, −0.14) | |
| 75+ | −0.18 (−0.25, −0.11) | −0.21 (−0.28, −0.14) | −0.30 (−0.37, −0.23) | |
| Sex Ref: Male | ||||
| Female | 0.049 (−0.014, 0.11) | 0.11 (0.039, 0.18) | 0.13 (0.046, 0.21) | |
| Race Ref: White | ||||
| Black | 0.063 (0.011, 0.12) | −0.010 (−0.057, 0.037) | −0.034 (−0.089, 0.020) | |
| Other | 0.035 (−0.019, 0.089) | −0.014 (−0.063, 0.035) | 0.033 (−0.035, 0.10) | |
| BPI-I Ref: Mild | ||||
| Moderate | 0.010 (−0.057, 0.078) | −0.038 (−0.11, 0.037) | 0.012 (−0.060, 0.082) | |
| Severe | 0.020 (−0.050, 0.090) | −0.066 (−0.14, 0.0094) | −0.030 (−0.10, 0.043) | |
| Opioid dose (ME) | ||||
| Ref: <20 | ||||
| 20 - <50 | −0.010 (−0.045, 0.025) | 0.030 (−0.0067, 0.068) | 0.024 (−0.019, 0.068) | |
| 50 - <100 | 0.016 (−0.039, 0.070) | 0.059 (−0.0017, 0.11) | 0.029 (−0.039, 0.096) | |
| 100+ | 0.032 (−0.017, 0.080) | 0.088 (0.030, 0.15) | 0.13 (0.064, 0.19) | |
| Depressive disorder | 0.23 (0.18, 0.28) | 0.044 (0.00086, 0.088) | 0.079 (0.029, 0.13) | |
| Anxiety disorder | 0.19 (0.13, 0.24) | 0.040 (−0.021, 0.10) | 0.096 (0.033, 0.16) | |
| PTSD | 0.27 (0.21, 0.33) | 0.13 (0.067, 0.18) | 0.12 (0.063, 0.18) | |
| Exercise / movement therapies | ||||
| Aerobic exercise RD (95% CI) |
Stretching/ strengthening RD (95% CI) |
Yoga RD (95% CI) |
t’ai chi
RD (95% CI) |
|
| Age Ref: <55 | ||||
| 55–64 | 0.013 (−0.058, 0.085) | −0.068 (−0.14, 0.0051) | −0.0011 (−0.042, 0.040) | 0.012 (−0.020, 0.044) |
| 65–74 | −0.086 (−0.16, −0.015) | −0.15 (−0.23, −0.077) | −0.040 (−0.075, −0.0042) | −0.037 (−0.029, −0.037) |
| 75+ | −0.12 (−0.21, −0.034) | −0.18 (−0.27, −0.083) | −0.048 (−0.085, −0.0098) | 0.0093 (−0.030, 0.048) |
| Sex Ref: Male | ||||
| Female | 0.15 (0.064, 0.23) | 0.094 (0.016, 0.17) | 0.072 (0.023, 0.12) | 0.015 (−0.016, 0.045) |
| Race Ref: White | ||||
| Black | 0.030 (−0.028, 0.088) | −0.021 (−0.084, 0.041) | 0.013 (−0.018, 0.045) | 0.027 (−0.030, 0.057) |
| Other | 0.082 (0.011, 0.15) | 0.065 (−0.013, 0.14) | −0.0031 (−0.032, 0.026) | 0.032 (−0.0097, 0.074) |
| BPI-I Ref: Mild | ||||
| Moderate | −0.082 (−0.15, −0.0091) | −0.041 (−0.10, 0.021) | −0.0084 (−0.046, 0.029) | 0.013 (−0.015, 0.040) |
| Severe | −0.20 (−0.28, −0.13) | −0.16 (−0.22, −0.094) | −0.015 (−0.040, 0.020) | −0.020 (−0.045, 0.056) |
| Opioid dose (ME) | ||||
| Ref: <20 | ||||
| 20 - <50 | 0.0046 (−0.043, 0.052) | −0.033 (−0.088, 0.023) | 0.010 (−0.0093, 0.030) | 0.018 (−0.00025, 0.037) |
| 50 - <100 | 0.017 (−0.056, 0.090) | −0.038 (−0.12, 0.044) | −0.0034 (−0.028, 0.021) | 0.025 (−0.0068, 0.056) |
| 100+ | 0.017 (−0.048, 0.083) | 0.032 (−0.042, 0.10) | 0.052 (−0.0047, 0.11) | 0.014 (−0.0076, 0 036) |
| Depressive disorder | 0.0097 (−0.042, 0.061) | 0.026 (−0.028, 0.081) | 0.016 (−0.013, 0.045) | 0.010 (−0.014, 0.034) |
| Anxiety disorder | 0.030 (−0.041, 0.10) | −0.011 (−0.090, 0.068) | −0.0090 (−0.037, 0.019) | 0.040 (0.00083, 0.078) |
| PTSD | 0.033 (−0.034, 0.10) | 0.028 (−0.040, 0.096) | 0.037 (0.0043, 0.070) | 0.045 (0.010, 0.080) |
| Manual therapies | ||||
| Acupuncture RD (95% CI) |
Chiropractic RD (95% CI) |
Massage RD (95% CI) |
||
| Age Ref: <55 | ||||
| 55–64 | −0.029 (−0.069, 0.010) | −0.071 (−0.13, −0.01) | −0.072 (−0.13, −0.017) | |
| 65–74 | −0.048 (−0.086, −0.0094) | −0.067 (−0.14, 0.0023) | −0.085 (−0.15, −0.024) | |
| 75+ | −0.049 (−0.093, −0.0049) | −0.084 (−0.15, −0.014) | −0.081 (−0.16, −0.0041) | |
| Sex Ref: Male | ||||
| Female | 0.037 (−0.015, 0.089) | −0.0094 (−0.052, 0.033) | 0.078 (0.015, 0.14) | |
| Race Ref: White | ||||
| Black | 0.034 (0.0020, 0.067) | −0.030 (−0.067, 0.0077) | 0.029 (−0.018, 0.075) | |
| Other | 0.045 (−0.0096, 0.10) | 0.032 (−0.049, 0.11) | 0.041 (−0.023, 0.11) | |
| BPI-I Ref: Mild | ||||
| Moderate | 0.026 (−0.0023, 0.055) | −0.011 (−0.058, 0.036) | 0.049 (0.013, 0.085) | |
| Severe | 0.037 (0.0090, 0.065) | 0.0021 (−0.053, 0.057) | 0.050 (0.0061, 0.093) | |
| Opioid dose (ME) | ||||
| Ref: <20 | ||||
| 20 - <50 | −0.0050 (−0.031, 0.021) | 0.014 (−0.021, 0.050) | −0.013 (−0.054, 0.028) | |
| 50 - <100 | 0.0069 (−0.027, 0.041) | 0.045 (−0.041, 0.13) | −0.056 (−0.10, −0.012) | |
| 100+ | 0.053 (0.00045, 0.11) | −0.013 (−0.066, 0.041) | −0.016 (−0.071, 0.039) | |
| Depressive disorder | 0.0039 (−0.0247, 0.032) | −0.049 (−0.096, −0.0021) | −0.036 (−0.076, 0.0035) | |
| Anxiety disorder | 0.00093 (−0.032, 0.034) | −0.0027 (−0.052, 0.046) | 0.017 (−0.032, 0.066) | |
| PTSD | 0.014 (−0.018, 0.046) | 0.085 (0.0015, 0.17) | 0.025 (−0.033, 0.083) | |