. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Sep 1.

Published in final edited form as: Appl Mater Today. 2020 Jul 30;20:100752. doi: 10.1016/j.apmt.2020.100752

Table 2.

Proposed fabrication methods for tissue scaffold meta-biomaterials.

Target	Desired Function/Range	Biomaterials/Bioinks Composition	Proposed Fabrication	Fabrication Challenge
Articular cartilage	Anisotropic and auxetic deformation (Poisson’s ratio <0)	Chondrocyte/stem-cell laden natural hydrogels (collagen gel) or polymers	SLA-based AM DLP-based AM	Stability, flexibility Stability, resolution
Cortical bone	Extreme stiffness/high toughness (elastic modulus > 100 MPa; strength > 500 MPa)	Osteoblast/stem-cell laden natural hydrogels or polymers, acellular metals, ceramics/phosphate paste	Nozzle-based AM Nozzle-based AM NLS-based AM, SLS/SLM-based AM	Speed, composition Strength, speed, fidelity Surface properties (porosity)
Dermis	Super-elasticity (total strains > 100%)	Natural hydrogels or polymers loaded with/without keratinocytes	Conventional, nozzle-based AM	Mold precision, ink selection
Blood vessels	Time-based volume variations (4D printing; self-assembly)	Natural hydrogels or soft polymers seeded by endothelial cells	DLP/TPA-based AM DLP-based AM	Repeatability, assembly Fabrication resolution