Table 4.

Association Between Violence Exposure and the Timing of Exposure to Violence on Child Emotional/Behavioral Problems at Age 10, Adjusting for Burden of Other Adversity Exposure in Very Early Childhood

	Internalizing Symptoms			Externalizing Symptoms
	RR	95% CI	homogeneity p	RR	95% CI	homogeneity p
Physical Violence
Ever exposed	1.43*	(1.34, 1.55)		1.49*	(1.36, 1.63)
Timing of Physical Violence			<0.0001			<0.0001
Very Early Childhood	1.55*	(1.25, 1.92)		2.18*	(1.68, 2.93)
Early Childhood	1.65*	(1.31, 2.08)		1.57*	(1.22, 2.01)
Middle Childhood	1.43*	(1.27, 1.63)		1.39*a	(1.20, 1.62)
Late Childhood	1.39*	(1.28, 1.52)		1.48*a	(1.31, 1.65)
Sexual Violence
Ever Exposed	1.27*	(1.14, 1.43)		1.31*	(1.13, 1.52)
Timing of Sexual Abuse			0.007			0.034
Very Early Childhood	1.40	(0.91, 2.16)		2.59*	(1.68, 3.94)
Early Childhood	1.36*	(1.04, 1.79)		1.26 a	(0.85, 3.94)
Middle Childhood	1.31*	(1.08, 1.58)		1.23 a	(0.94, 1.62)
Late Childhood	1.20*	(1.02, 1.40)		1.20 a	(0.99, 1.45)

Note: Risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals are shown. Poisson regression models with robust standard errors are adjusted for household income, maternal education, race/ethnicity, gender, parental marital status, gestational birth status, maternal psychopathology, and a count of other adversity exposure in very early childhood. A count of other adversity exposure in very early childhood was determined by counting the number of types of other events the child was exposed to during the same time period: child illness, household member illness, someone else close to the child experienced an illness, parent/caregiver death, death or someone else who was close to the child, unsafe neighborhood, financial problems, household experienced enduring conflict, divorce, parent job loss, and moved homes. The reference group for all models is unexposed, making each effect estimate an indicator of the effect of being exposed (at any time period or at a certain time period) relative to being never exposed. After tests of homogeneity, for which p-values are shown, post-hoc Tukey pairwise comparisons were estimated. Significant differences are shown using superscript letters as detailed below. Tukey pairwise comparisons may be non-significant even in cases of significant tests of homogeneity, as tests of homogeneity assess global differences across groups rather than two-way comparisons and Tukey p-values are adjusted for multiple comparisons. RR = risk ratio

^aSignificantly different from very early childhood based on post-hoc Tukey test.

^*p < .05.