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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Crim Justice. 2019 Oct 19;66:101636. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101636

Table 4:

Prevalence of PDM-related substance use disorder symptoms by educational attainment

Any PDM Opioids Stimulants Sed/Tranq
Dropout % (95% CI) % (95% CI) % (95% CI) % (95% CI)
Push Factors
School(a) 7.59% (6.50, 8.84) 6.40% (5.35, 7.64) 1.28% (0.88, 1.84) 2.00% (1.45, 2.74)
Behavioral(b) 9.17% (7.58, 11.04) 7.04% (5.89, 8.39) 2.91% (1.73, 4.85) 2.52% (1.68, 3.76)
Pull Factors
Personal(c) 5.37% (4.41, 6.51) 4.50% (3.67, 5.49) 1.11% (0.74, 1.66) 1.58% (1.10, 2.27)
Economic(d) 4.51% (3.23, 6.24) 4.03% (2.83, 5.71) 0.68% (0.35, 1.28) 0.89% (0.49, 1.63)
Other(e) 4.14% (2.84, 5.98) 3.85% (2.59, 5.67) 0.63% (0.26, 1.51) 0.97% (0.44, 2.17)
Completed HS
High School(f) 5.13% (4.78, 5.51) 4.06% (3.75, 4.39) 1.20% (1.04, 1.39) 1.23% (1.07, 1.41)
College(g) 3.35% (3.15, 3.56) 2.12% (1.95, 2.31) 1.27% (1.17, 1.39) 0.70% (0.60, 0.81)
First Post-hoc Comparison a, f > g a > b
a-f > g		 g > a, c, d, f a, f > g
Second Post-hoc Comparison a > b, f, g
b, c, d, e, f > g		 a > b, f, g
c > f
b, c, d, e, f, > g		 no significant differences a > f, g
b, c, f > g
  • The results of 4 separate cross-tabulations are shown in the table, with prevalence of PDM-related substance use disorder symptoms and 95% confidence intervals.
  • All pairwise comparisons were Bonferroni-corrected for multiple comparisons, with comparisons only noted when they differ at p-level of < 0.0083 (or, 0.05/6).
  • The first post-hoc comparisons were based on logistic regression models adjusted for prior drug use, lifetime arrest, age, sex, race/ethnicity, total family income, and geographic residence.
  • The second post-hoc comparisons were based on logistic regression models adjusted for risk propensity, self-reported offending, age, sex, race/ethnicity, total family income, and geographic residence.
  • Educational attainment: push factors include school (e.g., school was boring), behavioral (e.g., often got into trouble); pull factors include personal (e.g., had responsibilities at home), economic (e.g., needed to get a job), and other (e.g., became ill); high school (did not continue education beyond high school); college (currently in college or college graduate)