Table 2.
Summary of studies in periparturient dairy cows investigating the effects of supplemental essential fatty acids on liver, immune system, inflammation, and reproductive performance
| Nutraceuticala | Form | Doseb | Period | Main outcomesc | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EPA (C20:5n-3) and DHA (C22:6n-3) | Fish oil | 1.5 (22 to 250 g oil/d) | − 49 to 160 DFC6 | Lower production of TNF by neutrophils stimulated with LPS as compared with those from cows fed palm oil | [47, 48] |
|
n-3 PUFA (C20:5n-3; C22:6n-3) |
Decreased liver ketogenesis; Activates PPARG reducing the production of TNF by leukocytes and partially reversing the insulin resistance caused by this cytokine, thus increasing the glucose availability and the energy balance | [49, 50] | |||
| CLA (cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 C18:2n-6) | CLA | 50–100 g/d | − 21 to 252 DFC | Inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory activity in macrophages; Increased albumin and cholesterol concentrations in early lactation | [51, 52] |
| n-6 PUFA (C18:2 cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12) | Increased secretion of VLDL and apolipoprotein B100, decreasing cellular accumulation of triglycerides from palmitic acid, increasing DMI, reducing NEB and lipomobilization (lower NEFA and BHB levels in blood) | [53, 54] | |||
|
Mitigation of the oxidative stress status Protection of paraoxonase against oxidative inactivation |
[53, 54] | ||||
| ALA (C18:3n-3) | Whole flaxseed | Higher conception rate at the first artificial insemination | [55] | ||
| No embryo mortality with flaxseed compared to 15% with Megalac or 8% with soybean | [56–58] | ||||
| Extruded flaxseed | Higher number of small follicles compared to cows fed extruded soybeans | [59] | |||
| 4–5 | − 21 to 100 DFC | Longer interval between PGF2α injection to behavioral estrous and estradiol peak. Longer duration of behavioral estrous. Fewer days from the first artificial insemination to conception and open day | [21] | ||
| Flaxseed oil | Higher cleavage rate as compared with cows supplemented with saturated fatty acids | [60, 61] | |||
| Encapsulated flaxseed oil | 3.8 (242.2 to 700 g oil/d) | 114 DFC to ovum pick up | Higher number of 2 to 7 mm follicles compared to cows fed sunflower oil or saturated fatty acids +EI: Lower concentration of estradiol and estradiol: progesterone ratio in estradiol active follicles | [31, 62] | |
| EPA (C20:5n-3) and DHA (C22:6n-3) | Algae product containing 10% DHA | 100 g/d | 27 to147 DFC | Increased resumption of estrous at 58 DFC and increased pregnancy per artificial insemination (Reduced days to pregnancy by 22 d compared with control) | [63] |
| Fish oil | 200 to 500 g/d | − 21 to 21 DFC | Decreased pregnancy losses and larger ovulatory follicles; Higher cleavage rate as compared with cows supplemented with saturated fatty acids | [61, 64] |
a ALA Alpha-linolenic acid, EPA Eicosapentaenoic acid, DHA Docosahexaenoic acid, TNF tumor necrosis factor – alpha, LPS lipopolysaccharide, PPARG peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, VLDL very low-density lipoprotein, DMI dry matter intake, NEB negative energy balance, NEFA non-esterified fatty acids, BHB beta-hydroxybutyrate, PGF2α prostaglandin F2α
b Expressed as % of dry matter whenever not differently indicated
c Days from calving