Table A.6:
Bounding child health effects to account for attrition
| Child survival |
Fetal loss |
Fetal death |
Early infant death |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | |
| Worst-case bounds | −0.038*** (0.010) | −0.023* (0.012) | −0.031*** (0.0088) | −0.018* (0.0098) | 0.011* (0.0059) | 0.010 (0.0073) | 0.020*** (0.0063) | 0.024*** (0.0075) |
| Controls | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Observations | 10963 | 8677 | 10963 | 8677 | 9787 | 7594 | 9392 | 7208 |
| Number of groups | 180 | 144 | 180 | 144 | 180 | 144 | 180 | 144 |
| p-value from permutation test | 0 | 0.030 | 0 | 0.020 | 0.020 | 0.090 | 0 | 0 |
| Control group mean | 0.23 | 0.25 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.052 | 0.059 | 0.061 | 0.066 |
| Lee upper bound | −0.054 | −0.041 | −0.047 | −0.036 | −0.012 | −0.013 | −0.00084 | 0.0020 |
| Lee lower bound | −0.063 | −0.046 | −0.052 | −0.041 | −0.018 | −0.019 | −0.010 | −0.0053 |
Note: To estimate the worst-case bound, we assume that all the unobserved attriters in the control group experienced a ‘good’ outcome while all those in the treatment group experienced a ‘bad’ outcome. The dependent variables are in the first row of the table: child survival is the probability that an exposed child (who was in-utero at enrollment) was alive at follow-up; a fetal loss is a pregnancy termination before 28 weeks; a fetal death is a child that was delivered after 28 weeks but was born dead; and an early infant death is one where the child was born alive but died before the follow-up interview. The treatment is a cash payment of $14 paid to households if eligible pregnant women used a package of health services consisting of at least three antenatal visits, a health facility delivery, and one postnatal visit. The models include strata (HSA) fixed effects and the following controls: dummies for mother’s age (<18, 18–24, 25–29, 30–34, and >35 years), dummies for mother’s educational attainment (no schooling, Islamic schooling, some primary school, some secondary school, and some tertiary schooling), a dummy denoting Hausa or Fulani extraction, dummies for mother’s number of prior births, dummies indicating a prior fetal loss or a stillbirth, and household wealth quintiles. The second column in each panel excludes observations in Gombe state. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the level of the health service area (HSA).
p < 0.1
p < 0.05
p < 0.01.