Table 1.
Overview of articles.
| Author(s) and year | Research purpose | Central concept | Theoretical framework | Methodology | Key findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anderson (2007) | To examine whether wages are higher in those developing countries to which business travel and telecommunication is cheaper and easier | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data | The amount of business travel received by developing countries is significantly correlated with various proxies for travel and communication costs; the amount of inward business travel has a positive effect on per capita GDP |
| Andresen and Bergdolt (2019) | To examine individual and job-related antecedents of a global mindset in the context of IBTs | IBTs | Constructivist theory (Honebein, Duffy, & Fishman, 1993) | Empirical: quantitative, 624 surveys | Individuals' personality traits, motivation, and job-related factors are positively related to the IBTs' level of global mindset; business travel needs to provide developmental challenges if it is to promote learning processes |
| Atkinson and Pareit (2019) | To explore the nature of psychological contracts of IBTs | IBTs | Psychological contract (Herriot, Manning, & Kidd, 1997) | Empirical: qualitative, 9 interviews, manufacturing and consulting sectors | IBTs' psychological contract is more relational in nature than might be expected with a mix of relational and transactional obligations; effective management is essential to realising IBTs' full strategic value |
| Baker and Ciuk (2015) | To explore the work-family interface of IBTs and rotational assignees | IBTs, rotational assignees | – | Empirical: qualitative, 20 interviews, 1 MNE from the UK, engineering sector | Four key factors affect the work-family interface: time spent away, unpredictability of schedules, limited control, and limited organisational support |
| Barish and Dilchert (2010) | To examine the responsibilities of HR when managing IBTs in relation to radiation exposure | IBTs | – | Conceptual | IBTs who often travel on high-altitude transcontinental or international flights receive a high radiation exposure; HR must recognise this potential health risk and provide education and dose assessment |
| Bathelt and Henn (2014) | To develop a typology of geographies of knowledge transfer over distance | IBTs | – | Conceptual | Three configurations of knowledge transfer build upon temporary face-to-face interaction: international community gatherings, international business travel, and transnational network relations |
| Beaverstock et al. (2009) | To review the function, modes, and spaces of business travel and its impact on IBTs and the environment | IBTs | – | Conceptual | International business travel allows firms to manage their global structures, liaise with external suppliers and contractors, and service its obligations to clients; technology has not led to the reduction in travel anticipated |
| Belenkiy and Riker (2012) | To investigate the contribution of international business travel to US exports | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of data from the Survey of International Air Travelers (SIAT) | IBTs use face-to-face interactions to negotiate sales, promote brands, and establish joint ventures; the resulting expansion of a country's exports can generate significant benefits for the exporting economy |
| Berg et al. (2011) | To assess knowledge, attitude, and practices towards malaria among IBTs and to identify recommendations for improving prevention | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 328 surveys, 1 MNE from the Netherlands, oil and gas sector | IBTs make largely use of internal provided travel health resources; a firms' health and security culture and duty of care principles can positively contribute to employees' experience and desirable prevention behaviour |
| Bozkurt and Mohr (2011) | To discuss how different forms of cross-border mobility contribute to establishing social ties in MNEs | IBTs, STIAs, localised transfers, traditional expatriates | Social capital theory (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998) | Empirical: qualitative, 72 interviews, 3 MNEs from Finland, Sweden, and the USA, telecommunications sector | IBTs and STIAs help initiate cross-unit ties in many locations and with large numbers of partners; they also show a greater potential for the creation of multilateral rather than bilateral social ties |
| Bunn (2008) | To examine the distribution, risks, costs, burden, and prevention of hepatitis A and B | IBTs | – | Conceptual | Hepatitis A and B present significant health risks to today's IBTs; many IBTs remain unaware of the risks of infection or do not follow recommendations to avoid risky behaviour |
| Burkholder et al. (2010) | To determine if the frequency and duration of business travel is associated with differences in IBTs' health | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of 12942 health risk appraisals, 1 MNE from the USA | International business travel is significantly associated with health problems; the results underscore the importance of preparing employees for the stressors that often accompany long-haul business travel |
| Cardoso and Jordão (2017) | To explore the occupational stress associated with international business travel | IBTs | HMS (Nelson & Simmons, 2011) | Empirical: qualitative, 11 interviews and analysis of corporate documentation, 1 MNE, automotive sector | Business travel is a source of distress; travelling contains negative consequences, particularly for the family; IBTs tend to opt for coping strategies focused on the problem instead of focusing on the emotions to deal with the stressors |
| Chen et al. (2018) | To describe travel-related health problems in IBTs | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of 12203 medical records | A range of health problems related to international business travel are presented; pre-travel advice is still under-utilised and needs to be improved |
| Collings et al. (2007) | To explore the context of conventional assignments and alternative forms of international assignments | IBTs/frequent flyers, international commuters, rotational assignees, STIAs, virtuals | – | Conceptual | Points to the emergence of a portfolio of alternatives to the traditional international assignment; HR issues and implications are explored; a standardised approach to managing these assignments is untenable |
| Collins and Tisdell (2004) | To explore the relationship between Australian business returns and international business travel | IBTs | Managerial theory of the firm (Williamson, 1963), model of sales maximisation (Baumol, 1959) | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data | Provides evidence of a long-term positive relationship between Australian outbound business travel and business returns on private capital; conversely, a decline in business returns can be expected to cause a decline in international business travel |
| Connor and Patron (2008) | To explore the use of an accelerated immunisation schedule for combined Hepatitis A and B protection | IBTs | – | Conceptual | IBTs are at risk for hepatitis A and B infection if not vaccinated; many IBTs do not seek pre-travel medical advice and are unaware of the risks and modes of acquiring hepatitis A and B |
| Conroy et al. (2018) | To explore the specific forms of training and support that STIAs receive | STIAs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 9 interviews, various MNEs from Germany | |
| Criscuolo (2005) | To assess the degree of mobility of researchers inside their network and the types of assignments | STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 24 interviews, 6 MNEs from France, Germany, Switzerland, and the UK, pharmaceutical sector | Key reasons for international assignments are knowledge acquisition/transfer, leadership development, and reduction of organisational distances; STIAs have replaced long-term assignments as they are more cost-effective |
| Crowley-Henry and Heaslip (2014) | To examine what is currently known about STIAs in IHRM | STIAs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 10 interviews, Irish Defence Forces | The consideration that short-term international assignments are less costly and less complicated than traditional expatriation is questioned; shorter assignments are an integral component of the career path for military staff |
| Crowne and Engle (2016) | To examine the role of cultural intelligence, perceived language fluency, and past experience during a short-term international assignment | STIAs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 171 surveys, 1 university from the USA | Cultural intelligence lowers cross-cultural adaptation stress levels during short-term assignments; perceived language fluency, gender, and age impact stress levels |
| Demel and Mayrhofer (2010) | To examine flexpatriates career aspirations and perceived consequences of frequent flying | Flexpatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 52 interviews, several MNEs | Career prospects, learning and development, network building, enjoyment, and personal satisfaction are key motives to become a flexpatriate; health concerns and WLB issues are highlighted |
| Dimberg et al. (2002) | To analyse the pattern of health insurance claims filled by the spouses of IBTs | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of 4630 medical insurance claims, the World Bank Group | International business travel is associated with increased medical insurance claims for psychological disorders for travellers and their spouses which confirms self-reported perceptions |
| Dimberg et al. (2001) | To identify cases of DVT and the estimate rates of travel-related diagnoses | IBTs | – | Empirical: mixed, analysis of 904 medical insurance claims, compensation claims and interviews, the World Bank Group | Causal relations cannot not be established; however, results show that men are of higher risk than women and the risk increases with higher age |
| Dimitrova (2020) | To examine the role of developmental opportunities (i.e., work role challenges) in helping IBTs see frequent travel as a predominantly beneficial experience | IBTs | COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989), CH framework (Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000) | Empirical: quantitative, 204 surveys | Through the psychological state of thriving at work, travel frequency has a negative indirect association with IBTs' global role turnover intentions when IBTs' work roles are challenging and a positive association when their work lacks challenge |
| Dimitrova et al. (2020) | To investigate the work role requirement of international business travel during expatriation and to unravel the nature of its influence on career satisfaction | IBTs | JD-R model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 161 surveys | Expatriates who are required to travel internationally are better adjusted when they have access to abundant job resources and when cultural novelty is low; adjustment is a conduit for the influence of travelling responsibilities on expatriates' satisfaction with their careers |
| Druckman (2009) | To describe employers' duty of care, elements of a health programme, and responsibilities of mobile employees | IBTs | – | Conceptual | With effective employee education and the implementation of appropriate corporate health programmes, the likelihood of a travel health incident can be significantly reduced |
| Druckman et al. (2014) | To identify factors affecting the likelihood of requiring medical services during business travel | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of medical records, 48 MNEs | Travel to low-risk countries in aggregate accounts for more hospitalisations and medical evacuations than travel to high-risk countries; the risk per trip is much higher for travel to high-risk countries |
| Duvivier et al. (2019) | To generate insights into how different types of international assignments help transfer different types of knowledge across borders | STIAs, short-term inpatriates, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 50 interviews, 1 MNE from Belgium, financial services sector | Forms of global mobility are best used as a sequence of complementary knowledge transfer efforts; the particular value of first-hand knowledge transfer lies in the stronger personal ties, which is especially critical for the transfer of relational and axiomatic knowledge |
| Espino et al. (2002) | To measure travellers' and spouses' views on stress associated with business travel | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 635 surveys, the World Bank Group | Lengthy and frequent travel and frequent changes in travel dates negatively affects families; this strain contributes significantly to the stress IBTs feel about their travel |
| Faulconbridge et al. (2009) | To review the role of international business travel as labour mobility | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 120 interviews, 3 MNEs, professional services sector | Suggests that international business travel needs to be studied not in isolation but instead as one component in a wider ecology of mobility |
| Fischlmayr and Puchmüller (2016) | To examine the experiences of women as IBTs in dual-career families | IBTs | Social capital theory (Bourdieu, 1983) | Empirical: qualitative, 25 interviews | Women remain the main caretaker for children when pursuing global careers; childcare is identified as the number one challenge for all women |
| Gholipour and Foroughi (2020) | To investigate the effect of business confidence index on demand for international business travels | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data, 40 countries | When managers of local businesses become more optimistic about their business performance, they travel more to other countries; business confidence has a positive impact on outgoing business tourism expenditures |
| Gholipour and Foroughi (2019) | To investigate the effect of corruption on growth of outbound business travels | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data, 62 countries | Results suggest that the growth of outbound business travel is stronger in countries with higher levels of corruption |
| Gustafson (2009) | To investigate the characteristics of those who frequently travel abroad at work | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of 8010 records, Statistics Sweden | The majority of IBTs are male high-income earners; the image of IBTs as a cosmopolitan elite, who are globally connected, but locally disconnected, receives only partial support |
| Haynes (2010) | To examine ways in which physical travel and information communication technologies use are mobility allies | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 42 interviews and analysis of corporate documentation, 30 MNEs in Ireland | The Irish software sector remains both travel intensive and IT intensive; ‘working on the move’ will form hybrid workspaces, with new technology adapted to develop new working and travel practices |
| Hovhannisyan and Keller (2015) | To study the role of short-term cross-border labour movements for innovation | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of data, Survey of International Air Travelers (SIAT) | International business travel impacts international trade and foreign direct investment; air travel may be a channel through which cross-country income differences can be reduced |
| Hudson and Fortuna (2008) | To address infectious diseases that can be acquired during travel, including regions of endemicity, risk assessment, and means of prevention | IBTs | – | Conceptual | Many destinations of IBTs are endemic to a variety of infectious diseases associated with considerable morbidity and/or mortality; non-immune and unprepared IBTs are at risk; comprehensive pre-travel consultation is essential to prevent travel-related illness |
| Jais et al. (2015a) | To develop a multi-dimensional perceived support measurement for STIAs | STIAs | POS (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986) | Empirical: mixed, 11 interviews, RMIT University and 193 surveys, 24 higher education institutes from Australia | Four key support factors are presented: perceived organisational support, HR support, financial support, and career support |
| Jais et al. (2015b) | To explore what supports are needed for academic STIAs | STIAs | POS (Eisenberger et al., 1986) | Empirical: mixed, 11 interviews, RMIT University and 193 surveys, 24 higher education institutes from Australia | Perceived organisational support and positive career strategies are important for academic STIAs; emphasis is placed on WLB and self-fulfilment |
| Jais et al. (2015c) | To explore the short-term international teaching assignment experiences and WLB issues of academics | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 11 interviews, 1 university from Australia | Results show a negative impact on WLB due to family separation and long working hours which add strain to personal lives; however, they also show a positive impact on academics' job satisfaction linked to intrinsic rewards |
| Jensen and Rundmo (2015) | To examine the health and well-being implications for IBTs | IBTs | COR theory (Hobfoll, 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 2093 surveys, 1 MNE from Norway, oil and gas sector | Significant relations between work-family conflict and emotional exhaustion, and between emotional exhaustion and health problems are identified |
| Kollinger-Santer and Fischlmayr (2013) | To discover factors that influence WLB of IBTs and to explore potential gender differences | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 94 interviews | While gender does not impact the perception of WLB of IBTs, children make a crucial difference; individually tailored support is required for employees and their families |
| Konopaske and Werner (2005) | To investigate the offered benefits that impact willingness to accept international assignments | STIAs, traditional expatriates | Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) | Empirical: quantitative, 418 surveys, global managers, alumni from 1 university from the USA | Benefits are an important component for encouraging managers to accept international assignments; development, career support, compensation, and on-site support are highlighted |
| Konopaske et al. (2009) | To examine how individual, family, and organisational factors influence willingness to accept international assignments | STIAs, traditional expatriates | Reasoned action theory (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), family systems theory (Minuchin, 1974) | Empirical: quantitative, 593 surveys, global managers, alumni from 1 university from the USA | The family situation (children, spouse, elderly parents) has a significant impact on willingness to travel or to take on assignments; career fit is related to higher willingness to accept travel or assignments |
| Konopaske et al. (2005) | To understand spouses' willingness to relocate and managers' willingness to take on a global assignment | STIAs, traditional expatriates | Family systems theory (Minuchin, 1974) | Empirical: quantitative, 594 surveys, global managers, alumni from 1 university from the USA | Spouse willingness to relocate exerts a positive influence on managers' willingness to take on an assignment; job involvement is the most significant negative predictor of spouses' willingness to relocate |
| Liese et al. (1997) | To investigate whether IBTs experience disease due to work travel | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of 10884 medical records, World Bank Group | IBTs may pose health risks beyond exposure to infectious diseases; they file medical claims at a greater rate than non-travellers and the rate of insurance claims increases with frequency of travel |
| Lirio (2017) | To address how managers navigate their work and family transitions | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 25 interviews, 18 MNEs | Workplace flexibility in addition to technology allows global managers to maintain connectivity beyond spatial or temporal boundaries |
| Lirio (2014) | To understand how managers from Generation X manage international business travel and family | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 25 interviews, 18 MNEs | Long lead times required in planning international long-haul travel can increase WLB; providing flexibility is seen as critical by IBTs |
| Liu et al. (2017) | To examine the extent to which face-to-face communication affects outsourcing of services | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data, Survey of International Air Travelers (SIAT) and the US Bureau of Economic Analysis | More face-to-face interactions are required when the service outsourcing involves services of greater complexity, such as financial services |
| Mathiason (2013) | To examine the duty of care under the International Labour Organization (ILO) Occupational Health and Safety Conventions | IBTs, STIAs, traditional expatriates | Conceptual | Under the ILO Conventions, the duty of care extends to IBTs and assignees; government and employers have an ongoing responsibility to assess challenges and risks to occupational health and safety | |
| Mäkelä and Kinnunen (2018) | To examine the effects of the job demands and resources on psychological well-being | IBTs | JD-R model (Demerouti et al., 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 232 surveys, 3 MNEs and 1 trade union from Finland, energy sector | The high workload and pressure arising from international business travel relate directly to job exhaustion, which, in turn, is likely to lead to health problems and lower job performance; supportive HR practices are linked to satisfaction |
| Mäkelä, Bergbom, et al. (2015) | To examine the effect of gender and parental status on the relationship between travelling days and work-to-family conflict | IBTs | COR theory (Hobfoll, 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 1366 surveys, 4 MNEs, and 1 global public firm | An increase in the number of travelling days and being a parent leads to increased work-life conflict; policies need to consider the family status of travellers |
| Mäkelä et al. (2015) | To examine the effect of an international career orientation on the relationship between travelling days and work-to-life conflict/enrichment | IBTs | ERI model (Siegrist, 1996) | Empirical: quantitative, 232 surveys, 3 MNEs and 1 trade union from Finland, energy sector | The balance between efforts and reward affects both enrichment and conflict experiences; a career orientation towards internationalism increases work-to-life enrichment |
| Mäkelä et al. (2014) | To study the relationships between business travel, work-family conflict, and health issues | IBTs | JD-R model (Demerouti et al., 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 868 surveys, 4 MNEs and 1 global public firm | International business travel significantly increases work-family conflict, which, in turn, increases sleep problems |
| Mayerhofer et al. (2011) | To explore flexpatriates' perceptions of WLB issues and identify possible adjustments of WLB programmes | Flexpatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 40 interviews and analysis of corporate documentation, several MNEs operating in Austria | Efficiencies in work administration would greatly assist staff in keeping work time and stress under control; work-life imbalance has to be considered as a desired state of working life as it is connected to career aspirations |
| Mayerhofer et al. (2010) | To review the nature of flexpatriates' lifestyle to examine how they face a range of issues in their work, personal, and family lives | Flexpatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 99 interviews, MNEs from Austria or subsidiaries from foreign MNEs in Austria | Flexpatriates' needs and goals are not homogeneous and cannot be met simply by providing standard measures to facilitate working in different cultural locations; the study presents four empirically grounded types: Tough Travellers, Enjoyers, Cosmopolitans and Contactors |
| Mayerhofer et al. (2004a) | To examine career management issues of flexpatriates | Flexpatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 12 interviews, 2 MNEs from Europe, oil and gas and consulting sectors | With minimal HRM assistance, flexpatriates are proactive and self-managing in dealing with personal, family, and career demands; career issues are evident for both men and women, but the impact of home life seems more significant for women |
| Mayerhofer et al. (2004b) | To examine perceptions of flexpatriation and ways to manage international assignments | Frequent flyers, international commuters, flexpatriates, STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 7 interviews, 1 MNE from Austria, oil and gas sector | The burden of managing the impact of flexpatriation is largely left with employees and their families who must adjust to the impact of unexpected travel demands with little help from HR departments |
| McDonnell and Boyle (2012) | To highlight the move to internationalisation of the higher education sector and role of international assignments | Frequent flyers, STIAs | – | Conceptual | Effective management of alternative international assignments includes the consideration of its function and objectives, country requirements, assignee selection, ongoing support, and a return on investment |
| McKenna and Richardson (2007) | To develop a research agenda and raise practical issues relating to the increasing complexity of the internationally mobile professional | International commuters, flexpatriates, STIAs | – | Conceptual | Decisions concerning the nature and type of international assignment should be driven by the objectives and purpose(s) of the assignment, not by cost alone |
| McKenna et al. (2009) | To investigate failure and teams in short-term international assignments | STIAs | – | Empirical: qualitative: interviews, 1 MNE from the USA and 1 smaller international firm from Australia, IT sector | Defining the purpose and objectives of a team is important; however, if there are significant changes in contexts, contingencies need to be in place, or high performance teams need to be empowered to develop new objectives |
| Meyskens et al. (2009) | To discuss international recruitment and selection practices including alternative forms of international working | IBTs/frequent flyers, international commuters, STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Conceptual | The ability of talent to deliver on MNEs' goals grows in importance along with the growth of globalisation; because of inter- and even intra-firm variations, solutions to international talent needs cannot be uniform |
| Minbaeva and Michailova (2004) | To examine how different types of expatriation assignments influence knowledge-sharing behaviour | Frequent flyers, international commuters, STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: quantitative, 92 surveys, several MNEs from Denmark | While the ability to transfer knowledge may be increased through temporary assignments in multiple countries, expatriates deepen their knowledge; the need for knowledge transfer is highest for long-term assignments and lowest for frequent flyers |
| Miralles-Vazquez and McGaughey (2015) | To examine how the use of non-traditional international assignments affects knowledge creation and transfer, and innovation | international commuters, flexpatriates, STIAs, traditional expatriates, virtuals | – | Empirical: qualitative, 5 interviews, MNEs operating in Spain | Traditional expatriates hold greater potential to obtain deeper domain knowledge, but it can be limited to the host country; flexpatriates hold greater potential to acquire/apply knowledge from/across several locations |
| Oddou et al. (2000) | To illustrate how international travel can aid in developing global leadership skills | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 3 self-reports | International short-term travel can be a transformative experience that internalises global leadership competencies; firms must reward and encourage the willingness to experience cultures through their travel policies |
| Pate and Scullion (2018) | To examine the flexpatriate employment relationship and its key challenges | Flexpatriates | – | Conceptual | An ad hoc HR approach to the initial establishment of flexpatriation results in an open-ended relational psychological contract, which may lead to ambiguities and misunderstandings, and may trigger psychological contract violation |
| Pereira et al. (2017) | To extend our understanding of managing generation Y expatriates (Yopatriates) | STIAs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 22 interviews and 3 focus groups, 1 MNE from India, IT sector | Generation Y expatriates may provide more additional management issues due to their flexible nature of shorter assignments; in order to facilitate adjustment, instant communication using technology can be beneficial |
| Phillips et al. (2014) | To understand the relationship between recruitment messages and job seeker perceived fit, attraction, and job pursuit intentions | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, experiments with 490 participants, purchasing sector | Including frequent global travel requirement information in a recruiting message should increase the proportion of potential applicants in the pool with a global mindset; it influences both applicant attraction and job pursuit intention |
| Pinto and Maia (2015) | To examine the narratives of the work-life interface of IBTs | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 14 interviews | Occupational travel can be both a source of positive self-regard and fulfilment with high work identity and low boundary control, or a source of conflict and identity threat |
| Puchmüller and Fischlmayr (2017) | To evaluate experiences of female IBTs living in dual-career families | IBTs | Social support theory (House & Kahn, 1985) | Empirical: qualitative, 51 interviews | Women mainly value and use emotional and instrumental support which is mainly derived from within family; informational support is less relevant |
| Ramsey (2013) | To understand perceived strains that affect IBTs | IBTs | Institutional theory (Scott, 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 551 surveys | Institutional distance leads to both travel and job strain; pre-assignment training and development programmes should aim to reduce institutional distance |
| Ramsey et al. (2011) | To examine the influence of cultural intelligence on dealing with strain caused by institutional distance | IBTs | Institutional theory (Scott, 2001) | Empirical: quantitative, 841 surveys | Cultural intelligence development helps to lower individual strain in business travel; this is especially important regarding the reduction of travel strain caused by perceived normative differences |
| Rezaei et al. (2018) | To examine the relationship between risk perceptions and business travel | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 234 surveys | IBTs face a range of health problems; high risk perceptions have an adverse effect on business travel |
| Richards and Rundle (2011) | To assess associations between extent of travel and health | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of 13057 medical records | Poor self-rated health and obesity are associated with extensive business travel; IBTs are at increased risk for health problems and should be encouraged to monitor their health |
| Rogers and Reilly (2002) | To understand travel related health problems and adjustment needs | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 140 surveys, oil and gas sector | IBTs are at risk for travel related physiological health problems; the study presents high risk behaviours and other risk factors |
| Rogers and Reilly (2000) | To examine both physical and psychological health aspects associated with IBT | IBTs | – | Conceptual | IBTs run a high risk and probability for travel related stress and physical health problems; the study presents multiple factors that can influence physiological and psychological health of IBTs |
| Rogers et al. (2019) | To evaluate the benefit to cost ratio of the Japanese encephalitis vaccine for IBTs | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data | Vaccination for IBTs in the active transmission season has a net benefit under certain conditions that are not commonly considered risky, such as trips to peri-urban areas and when multiple trips are anticipated |
| Rogers et al. (2016) | To examine travel vaccines and issues in travel and international medicine | IBTs | – | Conceptual | The health and safety risks for IBTs are significant and are higher than for other employees for almost all categories of illness and injury, not just infections; travel vaccines and prevention programmes must be offered |
| Roy and Filiatrault (1998) | To measure the impact of new business practices and communication technologies on the behaviour of IBTs and their organisations | IBTs | – | Empirical: mixed, 24 interviews at 20 international firms, 2 focus groups, and 1139 surveys | The impact of videoconferencing as a substitute for business air travel is dependent upon both its penetration rate on the market and its utilisation rate; internal meetings are more likely to be substituted than external meetings |
| Saarenpää (2018) | To examine the consequences of international business travel on WLB | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 20 interviews, 3 MNEs from Finland | International business travel affects the personal life and the family of the traveller; integration of work and family is usually inevitable which leads to role blurring and work-life imbalance |
| Salt and Wood (2014) | To examine the staffing issues likely to be faced by UK universities in their international campuses | IBTs, STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 8 interviews, 4 universities from the UK | Many universities lack the infrastructure to manage overseas staff requirements; ad hoc business travel and secondments will not be sustainable in the future |
| Salt and Wood (2012) | To investigate the impact of the 2008 recession on mobility portfolios | IBTs, STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, interviews in 32 MNEs from the UK | Diversification and flexibility have underlain the development of mobility portfolios over the last decade; the recession has accelerated several processes already under way, including a shift towards alternatives to traditional assignments and the incorporation of new and emerging markets |
| Selcuk et al. (2016) | To examine travel health attitudes among Turkish IBTs to Africa | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 124 surveys | Reveals significant gaps in the vaccination and chemoprophylaxis uptake; an awareness and training programme should be developed for travellers and public health workers |
| Shaffer et al. (2012) | To review individual choices, challenges, and career consequences associated with global work | IBTs, flexpatriates, STIAs, global domestics, traditional expatriates, virtuals | – | Conceptual | Proposes a framework for relating global work experiences to careers and a taxonomy of global work experiences based on three dimensions: physical mobility, cognitive flexibility, and non-work disruption |
| Shaffer et al. (2016) | To develop and validate a role adjustment scale, comprising both work and family dimensions for global professionals | IBTs, global domestics, traditional expatriates, virtuals | Role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964) | Empirical: quantitative, surveys (5 studies) | Global professionals need to adjust not only to their new socio-cultural environment but also to their redefined work and family roles; adjustment comprises a task and a relationship dimension |
| Shankaran et al. (2011) | To examine tax issues, policy and process matters, and planning related to STIAs | STIA | – | Conceptual | Employers must perform the necessary due diligence to determine the potential tax obligations of their employees, and identify any corporate obligations for reporting and withholding in the host locations |
| Shortland (2015) | To examine the effect of working time on women's willingness to go on international assignments | International commuters, rotational assignees, STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: mixed, 40 interviews and 71 surveys, 2 MNEs, oil and gas sector | Compared with long-term assignments, international commuting and short-term assignments are unpopular among women, and in particular for mothers, as their working patterns are disruptive to WLB |
| Starr (2009) | To explore repatriation expectations by STIAs | STIAs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 22 interviews, 1 MNE from the USA, technology sector | Repatriating back into the home organisation is considered as the most important aspect of the entire short-term assignment experience; some STIAs desire change while others expect consistency on return |
| Starr and Currie (2009) | To examine the role of family and associated issues faced by STIAs | STIAs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 22 interviews, 1 MNE from the USA, technology sector | Family-related concerns are omnipresent during and after the assignment; families are influential in the assignment process and long-distance family support is crucial |
| Striker et al. (1999) | To investigate sources of self-reported psychological stress | IBTs | – | Empirical: mixed, several focus groups and 498 surveys, the World Bank Group | High stress levels are reported by more than 1/3 of IBTs; stress factors include workload upon return and social, emotional, and physical health concerns |
| Suutari et al. (2013) | To explore the different forms of short-term assignments and their implications | STIAs including international commuters, project workers, virtuals | – | Empirical: qualitative, 20 interviews and analysis of corporate documentation; 1 MNE from Finland, technology sector | A global HRM approach focuses on integration to increase knowledge transfer, to provide better support and uniform treatment, and to increase cost-effectiveness; corporate policies exist for long-term assignments, but not for short-term assignments |
| Tahvanainen et al. (2005) | To examine similarities and differences between traditional expatriation and short-term international assignments | STIAs, traditional expatriates | – | Empirical: qualitative, 1 focus group and 11 interviews, 11 MNEs from Finland | Company travel policies are in place, however, selection of STIAs is mostly informal; repatriation is regarded as unproblematic by the STIAs as replacement has rarely been hired while being away |
| Takahashi et al. (2002) | To examine sleep patterns of IBTs | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, experiments, education sector | International business travel causes sleep disturbances during the travel and when returning home |
| Tani (2005) | To understand the motivations underlying business travel | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, 210 surveys | Access, develop, and transfer knowledge is a key reason to engage in business trips; this can affect a country's ability to innovate |
| Tanaka (2019) | To examine how flights promote foreign direct investment | IBTs | – | Empirical: quantitative, analysis of economic data, 3030 MNCs from Japan | Japanese MNEs significantly increase the new establishment of foreign affiliates in the host countries with more frequent passenger flights from Japan |
| Valk and Hannon (2017) | To explore the JD-R model and its impact on well-being | Rotational assignees | JD-R model (Demerouti et al., 2001) | Empirical: qualitative, 24 interviews, 1 MNE from the UK, energy sector | IBTs who engage in long and frequent travel to remote locations on the globe experience physical, mental, and emotional demands |
| Valk and Hannon (2016) | To explore engagement during rotational assignments | Rotational assignees | – | Empirical: qualitative, 24 interviews, 1 MNE from the UK, energy sector | Presents a framework of engagement with four fundamental pillars: capacity to engage, reason to engage, freedom to engage, and alignment to engage |
| Welch et al. (2007) | To explore the roles and activities of IBTs and factors that may impact performance | IBTs | – | Empirical: qualitative, 10 interviews | Business travel fosters knowledge transfer, control, and sales; limited organisational support may lead to negative consequences |
| Westman et al. (2008) | To examine fluctuations in the levels of work-family conflict and burnout | IBTs | COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989) | Empirical: quantitative, 66 surveys | Conflict and burnout levels remains constant before, during, and after the trip for men; the level of conflict is lowest during and highest after the trip for women; burnout is highest pre-trip |