Table 1.
Improvement in technological properties or stability of astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts (summary).
| Astaxanthin Source | Encapsulation Method | Wall Material | Main Achievements | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pure (≥98%), from Sigma Chemical Co. | Inclusion complexation | β-cyclodextrin | Water solubility, heat, UV light, pH and oxidation stability | [66] |
| Shrimp (L. vannamei) cephalothorax lipid extract | Complex coacervation | Gelatin and gum Arabic or cashew gum | Astaxanthin stability (accelerated stability study) | [59,86] |
| Purified esterified fraction from H. pluvialis | Complex coacervation | Whey protein and gum Arabic | Astaxanthin storage stability at different temperatures, illumination conditions, and atmospheres Increased release In vivo bioavailability |
[53] |
| Astaxanthin oleoresin (85% purity) from Shenyang Pharmaceutical Company | Complex coacervation | Gelatin and alginate. Emulsifiers: Tween 80, soya lecithin or Span 20 |
Astaxanthin stability towards light, heat, and oxygen during storage In vivo bioavailability |
[67] |
| Shrimp (L. vannamei) cephalothorax lipid extract | Spray-drying | Maltodextrin and/or gum Arabic Partially purified soya phosphatidylcholine (emulsifier) |
Water solubility Astaxanthin, PUFAs and color stability (thermal treatment, chilled storage) Antioxidant activity Anti-inflammatory activity Bioaccessibility |
[57,58] |
| Oleoresin from H. pluvialis | Spray-drying | Gum Arabic or whey protein plus maltodextrin or inulin Soya lecithin (emulsifier) |
Water solubility Temperature and pH stability dependent on wall composition (whey protein the highest stability) |
[60] |
| Oleoresin from H. pluvialis | Emulsification–solvent evaporation | Whey protein concentrate | Water solubility Stability towards UV light, thermal treatment, and Fe3+ |
[54] |
| Extract from P. rhodozyma | Antisolvent precipitation | Zein and oligochitosan | Improved stability towards UV-light and storage | [48] |
| Synthetic, from Sigma Chemical Co. | Multiple emulsification–solvent evaporation | Chitosan (180 kDa molecular weight, 85.3% deacetylation degree) cross-linked with glutaraldehyde | No isomeration nor chemical degradation after 8 weeks of storage at 25–45 °C | [55] |
| Pure (≥98%), from Sigma Chemical Co. | Supercritical emulsions extraction | Ethylcellulose Tween 80 (emulsifier) |
Antioxidant activity Release in intestinal fluid of 70% in 10 h |
[102] |
| Pure (≥97%), from Sigma Chemical Co. | Multilayer micro-emulsification | Pectin from citrus peel Chitosan (1–20 kDa MW, 75% DD) Flaxseed oil (lipid carrier) Saponins (stabilizer) |
Emulsion stability towards ionic strength and temperature Astaxanthin stability during storage |
[82] |
| Pure, from Sigma Chemical Co. | Ionotropic gelation | Chitosan (low molecular weight, 82.6% deacetylation degree) Sodium caseinate Stearic acid |
Aqueous dispersibility Antioxidant activity Anti-fibrinogenic activity (LX-2 cells) |
[98] |
| Nutraceutical grade astaxanthin, from Sigma Chemical Co. | Modified emulsion gelation technology | Calcium alginate Paraffin oil (lipid carrier) Span 80 (Surfactant) |
Water solubility Storage stability Antioxidant activity Cytostatic activity (adipose-derived stem cells) |
[99] |
| Astaxanthin-rich X. dendrorhous (AstaXin®, nutraceutical grade) from IGENE Biotechnology Inc. | Ionotropic gelation | Calcium alginate | Antioxidant activity preserved during storage Release kinetics in gastrointestinal fluids regulated by modifying processing conditions |
[70] |
| Unknown, provided by Fuji Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. (Toyama, Japan) | Polymer-coated solid lipid nanoparticles (hot homogenization method with sonication) | Bovine serum albumin-oxidized dextran complex (polymer coating) Precirol ATO 5 (lipid wall material and astaxanthin carrier) |
Water solubility Antioxidant activity Retarded release in simulated gastrointestinal fluids |
[68] |
| Krill oil from E. superba | Nanostructured lipid carriers (hot homogenization method with sonication) | Palm stearin Lecithin (emulsifier) |
Water dispersibility Nanoparticles stable to pasteurization and freeze-drying Enhanced stability of astaxanthin, DHA and EPA towards UV light |
[56] |
| Pure, from Sigma Chemical Co. | Nanoliposomes | Egg phosphatidylcholine or dimyristoyl phosphatidylcholine | Water dispersibility Antioxidant activity in vitro Hydroxyl-radical cytotoxicity reduction in NIH-3T3 cells |
[64] |
| Shrimp lipid extract from L. vannamei | Nanoliposomes | Soya lecithin | Improved oxidative stability Better retention of EPA and DHA Reduction in fishy odor |
[103] |
| Pure (>96%), from Shanghai Yuanye Biotechnology Co. | Nanoliposomes | Egg yolk lecithin Cholesterol (stabilizer) Lactoferrin and chitosan hydrochloride (external coatings) |
Antioxidant activity improvement Stability improvement towards temperature or storage (external coatings provided additional protection) Improved bioaccessibility |
[51] |
| Extract from P. rhodozyma | Inclusion complexation | Carboxymethyl cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose | Improved solubility Improved antioxidant activity Improved stability towards temperature and acidic pH |
[50] |