Table 4.
Country | Setting | AMR Transmission Pathway(s) | Operation Scale | Findings | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
India | Urban | Intensive chicken farming | Large | High prevalence of multidrug resistance (94%) and ESBL-producing E. coli (87%). | [148] |
Zimbabwe | Rural Urban Peri-urban |
Intensive chicken farming | Small Large |
Higher Salmonella spp. AMR levels with farming intensity. 12.1% MDR S. enteritidis isolates, presents public health risk of salmonellosis. |
[102] |
Kenya | Rural | Intensive chicken farming | Small Large |
Documented drug-resistant thermophilic Campylobacter spp. originating in small-scale family operated poultry systems. | [149] |
Nigeria | Urban | Cross-species AMR transmission | Large | High abundance of AMR and virulent Enterococcus spp. sampled from poultry and cattle manure suggesting spread between livestock species. | [150] |
Ecuador | Rural | Cross-breed AMR transmission Zoonotic AMR transmission |
Small | High increase (66.1%) in beta-lactamase CTX-M-producing E. coli of backyard chickens not fed antibiotics after the village-scale introduction of broiler chickens. Sequenced blaCTX-M demonstrated close relatedness of backyard chicken, broiler chicken, and human samples from the villages which could suggest AMR zoonotic transmission. | [139] |
India | Rural | Indirect transmission to backyard poultry | Small | Detected high prevalence of MDR and avian pathogenic E. coli associated virulence genes 75.5% (n = 272) from backyard layer chickens and their environment. Potential AMR contamination from human defecation in nearby ponds and/or commercial broiler chicken flocks. | [151] |
Ecuador | Rural | Indirect transmission to backyard poultry | Small | Reported thermophilic resistant Campylobacter spp. present in free-ranging backyard chickens that were not fed antibiotics. | [152] |
Bangladesh | Urban | Intensive chicken farming Zoonotic |
Large Medium |
MDR presence in all E. coli isolated from intensive poultry, poultry husbandry environments, and hands of poultry workers. | [153] |
Costa Rica | Rural | Transmission to wild birds | Small | Free-ranging poultry present a risk for transmitting resistant E. coli to neotropical avifauna. | [154] |
Kenya | Rural | Indirect transmission to backyard poultry | Small | E. coli and Salmonella spp. were isolated and detected presence of class 1 integrons beta-lactamase genes from backyard chicken feces. | [155] |
Vietnam | Rural | Intensive chicken farming Occupational exposure |
Small Medium |
Demonstrated an association with AMR Salmonella spp. in farmers and intensively farmed poultry. | [156] |
E.U. | Zoonotic | N.S. | Human and food-production animals had moderate to high prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella resistant to ampicillin, tetracyclines and sulfonamides. High to extremely high resistance to fluoroquinolones in Salmonella spp., E. coli and Campylobacter recovered from humans, broilers, fattening turkeys and poultry carcasses/meet. Low levels of bacteria resistant to colistin in food-producing animals. MDR Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis recovered from broilers. |
[157] | |
U.S.A. | Zoonotic | N.S. | High levels of Campylobacter resistant to ciprofloxacin in humans was associated to consume of raw or undercooked chicken, unpasteurized milk, contaminated food and water, and direct contact with animals. Moderate levels of Salmonella resistant to ciprofloxacin associated to direct and indirect contact with animal feces. MDR Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis recovered from broiler’s meet. Whole-genome sequencing revealed that this strain was identified from sick people returning from South America, and it is rapidly spreading among people and animal populations. |
[158] |