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. 2020 Jul 24;10(8):1264. doi: 10.3390/ani10081264

Table 4.

Overview of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) transmission pathways originating from poultry production within resource-limited settings.

Country Setting AMR Transmission Pathway(s) Operation Scale Findings Ref.
India Urban Intensive chicken farming Large High prevalence of multidrug resistance (94%) and ESBL-producing E. coli (87%). [148]
Zimbabwe Rural
Urban
Peri-urban
Intensive chicken farming Small
Large
Higher Salmonella spp. AMR levels with farming intensity.
12.1% MDR S. enteritidis isolates, presents public health risk of salmonellosis.
[102]
Kenya Rural Intensive chicken farming Small
Large
Documented drug-resistant thermophilic Campylobacter spp. originating in small-scale family operated poultry systems. [149]
Nigeria Urban Cross-species AMR transmission Large High abundance of AMR and virulent Enterococcus spp. sampled from poultry and cattle manure suggesting spread between livestock species. [150]
Ecuador Rural Cross-breed AMR transmission
Zoonotic AMR transmission
Small High increase (66.1%) in beta-lactamase CTX-M-producing E. coli of backyard chickens not fed antibiotics after the village-scale introduction of broiler chickens. Sequenced blaCTX-M demonstrated close relatedness of backyard chicken, broiler chicken, and human samples from the villages which could suggest AMR zoonotic transmission. [139]
India Rural Indirect transmission to backyard poultry Small Detected high prevalence of MDR and avian pathogenic E. coli associated virulence genes 75.5% (n = 272) from backyard layer chickens and their environment. Potential AMR contamination from human defecation in nearby ponds and/or commercial broiler chicken flocks. [151]
Ecuador Rural Indirect transmission to backyard poultry Small Reported thermophilic resistant Campylobacter spp. present in free-ranging backyard chickens that were not fed antibiotics. [152]
Bangladesh Urban Intensive chicken farming
Zoonotic
Large
Medium
MDR presence in all E. coli isolated from intensive poultry, poultry husbandry environments, and hands of poultry workers. [153]
Costa Rica Rural Transmission to wild birds Small Free-ranging poultry present a risk for transmitting resistant E. coli to neotropical avifauna. [154]
Kenya Rural Indirect transmission to backyard poultry Small E. coli and Salmonella spp. were isolated and detected presence of class 1 integrons beta-lactamase genes from backyard chicken feces. [155]
Vietnam Rural Intensive chicken farming
Occupational exposure
Small
Medium
Demonstrated an association with AMR Salmonella spp. in farmers and intensively farmed poultry. [156]
E.U. Zoonotic N.S. Human and food-production animals had moderate to high prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella resistant to ampicillin, tetracyclines and sulfonamides.
High to extremely high resistance to fluoroquinolones in Salmonella spp., E. coli and Campylobacter recovered from humans, broilers, fattening turkeys and poultry carcasses/meet.
Low levels of bacteria resistant to colistin in food-producing animals.
MDR Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis recovered from broilers.
[157]
U.S.A. Zoonotic N.S. High levels of Campylobacter resistant to ciprofloxacin in humans was associated to consume of raw or undercooked chicken, unpasteurized milk, contaminated food and water, and direct contact with animals.
Moderate levels of Salmonella resistant to ciprofloxacin associated to direct and indirect contact with animal feces.
MDR Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis recovered from broiler’s meet. Whole-genome sequencing revealed that this strain was identified from sick people returning from South America, and it is rapidly spreading among people and animal populations.
[158]