Table 1.
Representative attempts of genetic transformation applied in Vitis species to enhance resistance against the most harmful fungal and oomycetes pathogens.
| Gene Name | Gene Source | Description | Biological Effect | Host | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pathogenesis-Related Proteins | |||||
| Non-expressor of Pathogenesis Related 1 ( VvNPR1.1 ) | Vitis vinifera | Key signal in salicylic acid pathway and local basal resistance to biotrophs | Enhanced resistance to Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay | [30] |
| Rice chitinase ( RCC2 ) | Oryza sativa | PR protein Class I Chitinase | Major resistance to Erysiphe necator and slight resistance to Elsinoe ampelina | Vitis vinifera cv. Neo Muscat | [31] |
| Chitinase and ribosome-inactivating protein ( RIP ) | Hordeum vulgare | These genes encode for two antifungal proteins | Susceptibility to Erysiphe necator and Plasmopara viticola infection equal to that of the control | Vitis vinifera cv. Seyval blanc | [32] |
| Rice Chitinase ( Chi 11 ) | Oryza sativa | Pathogenesis-related protein | Late and reduced manifestation of Erysiphe necator symptoms | Vitis vinifera cv. Pusa Seedless | [33] |
| Chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase | Scab-infected Sumai 3 wheat | Pathogenesis-related proteins | Chitinase was more effective than glucanase in conferring tolerance to Plasmopara viticola | Vitis vinifera cv. Crimson Seedless | [34] |
| VpPR4-1 | Vitis pseudoreticulata | PR4 proteins are considered chitin-binding proteins | Improved tolerance to Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Red Globe | [35] |
| Thaumatin-like protein ( Vvtl-1 ) | Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay | Pathogenesis-related protein 5 | Increased resistance to Erysiphe necator and Elsinoe ampelina | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [36] |
|
Thaumatin-like protein
( VqTLP29 ) |
Vitis quinquangularis cv. Shang-24 | Pathogenesis-related protein 5 | Increased resistance to powdery mildew, but decreased resistance to Botrytis cinerea | Arabidopsis thaliana | [37] |
| Thaumatin-like protein ( VaTLP ) | Vitis amurensis Rupr. “Zuoshan-1” | PR5 proteins have endo-β-1,3-glucanase activity; binding β-1,3-glucan | Reinforced resistance to Plasmopara viticola | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [38] |
| VpPR10.1 | Vitis pseudoreticulata | PR10 have in vitro ribonuclease activity | Increased tolerance to Plasmopara viticola | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [39] |
| Antimicrobial Peptides (AMPs) | |||||
| Natural Magainin-2 (Mag2)/synthetic derivate (MS199) | Magainin extracts from the skin of Xenopus laevis frog | Magainins with broad-spectrum in vitro antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi | Resistance to bacterial diseases such as crown gall diseases, minor susceptibility against Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay | [40] |
| Magainin-2 ( mag2 ) + PGL | Magainin extracts from the skin of Xenopus laevis frog | AMP belonging to the Magainins family | PGL protein seems to inhibit Botrytis cinerea spore germination | Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay | [41] |
| Transcription Factors | |||||
| VvWRKY2 | Vitis vinifera cv. Cabernet Sauvignon | WRKY protein isolated after Plasmopara viticola infection | Increased tolerance to Botrytis cinerea and broad-spectrum fungal resistance | Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi | [42] |
| VvWRKY33 | Vitis vinifera | WRKY protein | Enhanced resistance to Plasmopara viticola | Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz | [43] |
| VpWRKY3 |
Vitis pseudoreticulata accession “Baihe-35-1” |
WRKY protein isolated after Erysiphe necator infection | Improved tolerance to Ralstonia solanacearum | Nicotiana tabacum cv. NC89 | [44] |
| Ethylene response factors (VpERF2 and VpERF3) | Vitis pseudoreticulata | Transcription factor isolated after Erysiphe necator infection | Enhanced resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum and Phytophtora parasitica var. nicotianae Tucker | Nicotiana tabacum cv. NC89 | [45] |
| C-repeat-binding factor dehydration-responsive element-binding factor 1C (MrCBF2/DREB1C) | Muscadinia rotundifolia “Noble” | Transcription factor isolated after Plasmopara viticola inoculation | Enhanced resistance to Peronospora parasitica | Arabidopsis thaliana “COL0” | [46] |
| bZIP transcription factor ( VvbZIP60 ) | Vitis vinifera cv. Jing Xiu | Transcription factor that activates the accumulation of salicylic acid and the expression of PR1 protein | Enhanced resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [47] |
| DOF protein (VvDOF3) | Vitis vinifera | Protein involved in plant growth, development, and plant defense | Enhanced resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [48] |
| Tify protein (VvTIFY9) | Vitis vinifera | Protein highly expressed in leaves. Play an active role in SA pathway | Increased resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [49] |
| C2H2-type zinc finger protein (VvZFP11) | Vitis vinifera | This protein expression is regulated by salicylic acid and methyl jasmonate | Enhanced resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [50] |
| Secondary stress-related metabolites | |||||
| PR10 promot e r- Stilbene synthase (Vst1) | Vitis vinifera cv. Optima | Stilbenes production | Decreased susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea | 41B rootstock (Vitis vinifera cv. Chasselas x Vitis berlandieri) | [51] |
| Stilbene synthase (Vst1) | Vitis vinifera | Stilbenes production | Reinforced resistant against Botrytis cinerea | Vitis vinifera cv. Sugraone | [52] |
| Stilbene synthase (STS) | Vitis pseudoreticulata | Stilbenes synthesis | Transgenic plants with high resveratrol content | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [53] |
| Calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) (VaCPK20) | Vitis amurensis | Regulator of the biosynthetic pathways of resveratrol | Increased expression of STS7 gene, enhanced resveratrol production | Cell cultures of Vitis amurensis rupr. | [54] |
| Stilbene synthase (VpSTSgDNA2) | Vitis pseudoreticulata | Stilbenes production | Improved tolerance against Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay | [55] |
| Stilbene synthase (VpSTS) | Vitis pseudoreticulata | Stilbenes production | Improved resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [56] |
| Stilbene synthase (VaSTS19) | Vitis amurensis | Stilbenes production | Improved resistance to Botrytis cinerea and powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [57] |
| Stilbene synthase (VqSTS6) | Vitis quinquangularis | Stilbenoids accumulation | Improved resistance to Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [58] |
| Defense-related genes | |||||
| Jasmonate-ZIM domain protein (VqJAZ4) | Vitis quinquangularis clone Shang-24 | This gene is upregulated after Erisiphe necator inoculation | Improved resistance to powdery mildew and enhanced susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea. | Arabidopsis thaliana | [59] |
| Polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins ( pPGIPs ) | Pear fruit | PGIPs are plant cell wall proteins that specifically inhibit fungal endo-polygalacturonases (PGs). | Increased resistance to Botrytis cinerea and slight tolerance to Xylella fastidiosa | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless and Chardonnay | [60] |
| Two endochitinases (ech42 and ech33) and one N-acetyl- β -d-hexosaminidase (nag70) | Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma virens | Extracellular endochitinases of biocontrol agents and chitinolytic genes | Enhanced resistance to Botrytis cinerea. Tolerance to Erysiphe necator in ech42-nag70 expressing transgenic plants | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [61] |
| E3 ubiquitin ligase Erysiphe necator-induced RING finger protein 1 (VpEIRP1) | Vitis pseudoreticulata Baihe 31-1 accession | This protein activates plant defense response through the proteolysis of VpWRKY11 transcription factor | Enhanced resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [62] |
| F-box/Kelch-repeat protein (VpEIFP1) | Vitis pseudoreticulata | Transcription of EIFP protein is induced after powdery mildew infection and activation of PR genes | Enhanced tolerance to Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Red Globe and Arabidopsis thaliana | [63] |
| Metacaspases ( VrMC2 and VrMC5 ) | Vitis rupestris | Executors of hypersensitive response (HR), isolated after Plasmopara viticola infection | Programmed cell death (PCD) activation | Nicotiana tabacum cv. Bright Yellow 2 and Vitis vinifera cell cultures | [29] |
| Serotonin N-acetyltransferase ( VvSNAT2 ) | Vitis vinifera | Protein essential for melatonin production and for SA and JA signaling pathways activation | Improved resistance to powdery mildew | Arabidopsis thaliana | [64] |
| Resistance to Powdery Mildew 8 locus (RPW8.2) | Arabidopsis thaliana | Protein that encodes for small basic protein, with weak homology with NB-LRR protein | Erysiphe necator hyphal growth and sporulation were significantly restricted | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [65] |
| Ubiquitin ligase ( VpPUB23 ) | Vitis pseudoreticulata | Type E3 ubiquitin ligase is involved in many immune regulation responses | Decreased resistance to Erysiphe necator | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [66] |
| Ubiquitin ligase ( VaPUB ) | Vitis amurensis | U-box protein E3 ligase causes downregulation of PR10 | Transgenic plants were susceptible as control to Plasmopara viticola | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [67] |
| VaHAESA | Vitis amurensis cv. Shuanghong | Pattern recognition receptor (PRR) that belongs to leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase | Induce H2O2, NO, and callose accumulation. Leaves showed less spores and Plasmopara viticola infected areas than control | Vitis vinifera cv. Thompson Seedless | [68] |