Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of the study participants 1.
| Variable | All Subjects (n = 67) |
Subjects Divided by Intervention Group | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group 1 (n = 11) |
Group 2 (n = 14) |
Group 3 (n = 16) |
Group 4 (n = 13) |
Group 5 (n = 13) |
||
| Age (y) | 44.8 ± 10 | 46.0 ± 9.4 | 44.9 ± 8.9 | 41.6 ± 10.7 | 46.3 ± 12.2 | 46.1 ± 9.7 |
| Females, No. (%) | 32 (47.8) | 5 (45.5) | 7 (50) | 8 (50) | 5 (38.5) | 7 (53.8) |
| Smoking, No. (%) | ||||||
| Never | 32 (47.8) | 5 (45.4) | 7 (50.0) | 8 (50) | 5 (38.5) | 7 (53.8) |
| Former | 25 (37.3) | 4 (36.4) | 4 (28.6) | 6 (37.5) | 7 (53.8) | 4 (30.8) |
| Current | 10 (14.9) | 2 (18.2) | 3 (21.4) | 2 (12.5) | 1 (7.7) | 2 (15.4) |
| Education, No. (%) | ||||||
| High-school | 29 (43.3) | 2 (18.2) | 5 (35.7) | 7 (43.7) | 10 (76.9) | 5 (38.4) |
| College | 25 (37.3) | 7 (63.6) | 4 (28.6) | 6 (37.5) | 2 (15.4) | 6 (46.2) |
| Postgraduate | 13 (19.4) | 2 (18.2) | 5 (35.7) | 3 (18.8) | 1 (7.7) | 2 (15.4) |
| BMI [range] |
27.3 ± 5.6 [19–43] |
28.4 ± 6.1 [20–42] |
24.5 ± 4.5 [20–38] |
28.7 ± 6.9 [19–43] |
30.2 ± 5.3 [20–39] |
25.0 ± 3.3 [21–30] |
| Xanthophyll Carotenoid Concentrations (Serum and Tissue) | ||||||
| Serum L, μmol/L | 0.194 ± 0.096 | 0.184 ± 0.067 | 0.223 ± 0.116 | 0.188 ± 0.120 | 0.177 ± 0.108 | 0.187 ± 0.057 |
| Serum Z, μmol/L | 0.073 ± 0.029 | 0.074 ± 0.028 | 0.086 ± 0.038 | 0.071 ± 0.030 | 0.060 ± 0.022 | 0.073 ± 0.029 |
| MPOV [range] |
4553 ± 2095 [527–10,033] |
5263 ± 1789 [2243–8861] |
4793 ± 2885 [527–10,033] | 3890 ± 1925 [1327–7649] | 4277 ± 2115 [1027–8639] |
4784 ± 1446 [2632–7880] |
| Skin Carotenoid Score | 36,027 ± 12,458 | 37,970 ± 13,652 | 40,833 ± 15,063 | 34,656 ± 11,142 | 30,385 ± 12,065 | 36,538 ± 9173 |
1 Plus-minus values are means ± SD. There were no significant between-group differences at baseline except for BMI (p = 0.027). P values were based on chi-square and ANOVA or Kruskall–Wallis where appropriate. Abbreviations: L, lutein; Z, zeaxanthin; BMI, body mass index; y, years; MPOV, macular pigment optical volume. Interventions are as follows: Group 1, L (10 mg) + MZ (10 mg) + Z (2 mg) provided in one capsule; Group 2, L (10 mg) + MZ (10 mg) + Z (2 mg) provided in two capsules; Group 3, L (10 mg) + MZ (10 mg) + Z (2 mg) provided in DHA (430 mg) and EPA (90 mg) in two capsules; and Group 4, Ld (10 mg) + MZd (10 mg) + Zd (2 mg) provided in one capsule; or Group 5, placebo (sunflower oil).