Table 1.
Baseline characteristics and univariate associations with Cd and Pb.
| Characteristics | n= | Total Population | Cadmium St. B. | p-Value | Lead St. B. | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, years | 231 | 64 ± 9 | −0.05 | 0.46 | 0.09 | 0.18 |
| Women, n (%) | 231 | 93 (40) | 0.19 | 0.004 | −0.12 | 0.06 |
| Body Mass Index, kg/m2 | 230 | 33 ± 6 | −0.06 | 0.38 | −0.04 | 0.57 |
| Body surface area, m2 | 230 | 2.1 ± 0.2 | −0.14 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.37 |
| Systolic blood pressure, mmHg | 230 | 141 ± 17 | −0.06 | 0.4 | 0.07 | 0.26 |
| Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg | 230 | 76 ± 10 | 0.02 | 0.74 | 0.05 | 0.46 |
| Pulse rate, beats/min | 229 | 75 ± 13 | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.72 |
| Diabetes duration, years | 231 | 12 (6–20) | −0.22 | 0.001 | −0.09 | 0.2 |
| Treatment with insulin, n (%) | 231 | 140 (61) | −0.2 | 0.003 | −0.12 | 0.08 |
| HbA1c, mmol/mol (%) | 230 | 55 ± 10 (7.2 ± 3.1) | −0.14 | 0.04 | −0.16 | 0.02 |
| Smoking status | 231 | |||||
| Current active smokers, n (%) | 35 (15) | 0.46 | <0.001 | 0.09 | 0.28 | |
| Current passive smokers, n (%) | 46 (20) | 0.15 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.63 | |
| Former active smokers, n (%) | 95 (41) | 0.15 | 0.05 | 0.18 | 0.03 | |
| Never smoked, n (%) | 52 (23) | * | * | |||
| Pack years, (years) | 227 | 12 (0–29) | 0.3 | <0.001 | 0.23 | <0.001 |
| Alcohol, g/day | 229 | 2.0 (0–14) | −0.1 | 0.15 | 0.3 | <0.001 |
| Creatinine clearance, mL/min/1.73 m2 | 230 | 95 ± 39 | −0.18 | 0.007 | −0.12 | 0.08 |
| eGFR, mL/min/1.73 m2 | 231 | 75 ± 24 | −0.12 | 0.08 | −0.16 | 0.01 |
| Urine albumin excretion, mg/24 h | 223 | 11 (3–91) | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.05 |
| Urine total protein excretion g/24 h | 231 | 0.2 (0.1–0.4) | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.18 |
| Blood cadmium, nmol/L | 231 | 2.94 (1.78–4.98) | 0.16 | 0.01 | ||
| Blood lead, µmol/L | 231 | 0.07 (0.04–0.09) | 0.16 | 0.01 | ||
| Microvascular complications, n (%) | 231 | 154 (67) | −0.03 | 0.67 | 0.19 | 0.003 |
| Polyneuropathy, n (%) | 231 | 78 (34) | −0.03 | 0.66 | 0.12 | 0.07 |
| Diabetic kidney disease, n (%) | 231 | 105 (46) | 0.1 | 0.14 | 0.2 | <0.001 |
| Creatinine clearance <60 mL/min/1.73 m2, n (%) | 230 | 47 (20) | 0.1 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.02 |
| Albuminuria, n (%) | 231 | 86 (37) | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0.24 | <0.001 |
| Retinopathy, n (%) | 231 | 64 (28) | −0.11 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.25 |
| Macrovascular complications, n (%) | 231 | 99 (43) | 0.2 | 0.002 | 0.01 | 0.85 |
| Peripheral arterial disease, n (%) | 231 | 33 (14) | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.08 |
| Coronary artery diseases, n (%) | 231 | 66 (29) | 0.09 | 0.18 | 0.01 | 0.9 |
| Cerebrovascular diseases, n (%) | 231 | 26 (11) | 0.1 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.88 |
Standardized beta (St. B.) is shown. * never smoked is used as the reference value for smoking status. eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate.