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. 2020 Jul 26;12(8):2062. doi: 10.3390/cancers12082062

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Outlines of ceramide-driven signaling pathways. Ceramide activates PP2A, which activates Bax and suppresses Bcl-2 to promote apoptosis. Ceramide suppresses Akt, inactivates downstream mTOR, and induces autophagy. Ceramide activates PKCζ, which inhibits Akt phosphorylation and activates JNK. Activated c-Jun increases Beclin1 expression. Ceramide also increases NADPH oxidase- and mitochondrial complex III-mediated ROS production. NADPH oxidase, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase; PP2A, protein phosphatase 2A; ER stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress; ROS, reactive oxygen species; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin.