Figure 3.

AST reduces ROS-related lipid, protein, and DNA damage in high glucose-treated 661W cells. To confirm that high glucose-induced ROS-related damage was also attenuated by AST treatment, we measured the expression of acrolein (A), nitrotyrosine (B), and 8-OHdG (C) by immunocytochemistry to indicate the oxidative damages to lipids, proteins, and DNA, respectively. Significantly decreased oxidative damage was noted under AST treatment. AST = astaxanthin; HG = high glucose; LG = low glucose; ROS = reactive oxygen species. * Significantly different from control group (p < 0.05); # significantly different from high glucose-treated group without AST (p < 0.05). The Mann–Whitney U test was used to calculate the differences between the means of different experimental groups (three repeats per experiment, three wells per repeat, five images per well analyzed).