Table 5.

Immobilisation of antimicrobial ingredients into CNFs.

Antimicrobial Agent	Function	Reference
Silver nanoparticles (average size of 21 nm) incorporated into the cellulose acetate nanofibre	Excellent antibacterial action against Gram-positive S. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli, K. pneumonia, and P. aeruginosa	[124]
Silver nitrate (size ranging from 10 to 20 nm) incorporated into the cellulose acetate nanofibre	Very strong antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, K. pneumonia, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa	[125]
Composition of nanofibrillated Cellulose with silver nanoclusters (NFC/AgNC)	Antibacterial activity against E. coli	[126]
ZnO incorporated into the cellulose acetate nanofibre	Exhibited strong antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and Citrobacter	[127]
Silver nanoparticles incorporated into bacterial cellulose nanofibres	Strong antimicrobial potential against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria	[68]
T4 bacteriophage incorporated into core/shell electrospun fibres of polyethene oxide, cellulose diacetate (CDA) and their blends	Prevent bacterial growth on contaminated food surfaces	[128]
Porous CNFs with biomass tar, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and silver nanoparticles	Excellent antimicrobial performance against Gram-positive S. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli,	[129]
Chitosan adsorbed cellulose nanofibre (CNF) films	Prepared CNF film even with low Mw of chitosan exhibited antibacterial activity against L. innocua and E. coli.	[130]
Covalent grafting of gentamicin to nanocellulose-based sponge	Excellent antibacterial performance against E. coli and S. aureus, with bactericidal rates of over 99.9%	[123]
Ag nanoparticle/cellulose nanofibre (Ag NP/CNF) composite aerogels	The aerogel exhibited good antibacterial (for E. coli) and antifungal (for A. niger) activity.	[131]
Cellulose nanofibres (CNFs) and thyme essential oil (EO)	Sustained antibacterial release for fresh food preservation.	[132]