Table 3.

Use of by-products of the food industry as meat substitutes (extenders).

Ingredient Used	Meat Product	Meat Substitution (%)	Effect on Properties	References
Okara	Beef patties	7.5–37.5	Cholesterol reduces for raw (6–56%) and cooked (9–42%). Higher cooking yield, pH, lightness and yellowness. Sensory attributes valued negatively with 37.5% of meat replacements.	[70]
Okara	Beef burger	5–25	Increase lipid and moisture contents. Higher luminosity and dimmed during storage. Changes in the brown colour	[71]
Okara	Beef sausages	10–40	Carbohydrate, ash and fibre contents increased, while moisture, fat and protein contents decreased. Improved WHC but decreased textural parameters	[72]
Okara	Beef burgers	6 and 12	Sixty percent less calories. Increased hardness but decreased cohesiveness, chewiness and springiness. Lower sensory scores with 12% of substitutions	[73]
Okara	Pork meat gels	3–27	Higher cooking yield. Increased in lightness, hardness, chewiness and breaking force of gels but decreased in cohesiveness. Higher storage (G′) and loss (G”) modulus by heating.	[74]
Cashew apple residue powder	Hamburgers	7.1–14.3	Reduced 35% of the lipid content and increased of up to 7.6% of the fibre. Lower humidity but sensorial acceptable with 7.1 and 10.7% of meat replacements	[75]
Apple pomace	Buffalo emulsion-based sausage	2–8	Increased fibre content and improve cooking yield and emulsion stability	[76]
Enoki (Flammulina velutipes) mushroom stem waste powder	Goat nuggets	2–6	Increased dietary fibre, ash and phenolics compounds. Improved the emulsion stability, WHC, oxidative stability and shelf-life. Slight hardness decrease. No negative effects in the sensory attributes.	[77]
Textured whey proteins (TWP)	Beef Patties	0–50	Higher cooking yields. Patties containing up to 40% of hydrated TWP obtained similar sensory evaluations than all-beef patties	[78]
Protein concentrates from porcine blood	Irish breakfast sausage	15 and 30	Higher protein contents in raw samples. Decreased fat levels in cooked samples. Higher cooking yield and WHC for 15% of replacements. Decreased hardness and chewiness with 30% of meat substitutions	[79]
Protein concentrates from pork hams exudates	Irish breakfast sausage	15 and 30	Lower fat contents in raw samples. Higher protein contents with 30% of meat replacements. Decreased WHC. Decreased hardness and chewiness values with 30% of replacements	[79]
Protein concentrate from residues of edible fat processing	Irish breakfast sausage	15 and 30	Decreased fat contents. Similar WHC and cooking yield. Decrease hardness and chewiness values with 30% of meat replacements	[79]
Protein concentrate from brine solutions	Irish breakfast sausage	15 and 30	Higher protein contents. Higher cooking losses. Decreased redness in raw samples but increased when they are cooked	[79]