Table 2.

Comparison of multiple nanomedicine-based immunotherapies for glioblastoma

Immunotherapy	Advantages	Disadvantages
Immune checkpoint inhibition	Enhanced PD-L expression in glioblastoma Can overcome glioblastoma immune evasion Development of novel immune checkpoints The slow occurrence of side effects Combination of immunotherapy with radiotherapy or chemotherapy is more effective	Complex immune evasion strategies Responsive evaluations Immune-related side events The balance between self-tolerance and autoimmunity
Vaccination therapy	Multitude characterized Elicits potent, robust, and specific immune responses Available for most patients Ability to combine multiple targets into a cocktail vaccine Lowered risk of immune escape Safe, multivalent, and patient-specific Fully defined composition	Reduced immune response due to central tolerance if expressed by normal tissues Available for a subset of patients Possible immune evasion (growth of tumor cells that lack antigen expression) Instability of peptides in vivo being rapidly degraded by peptidases High production costs
CAR T-cell therapy	MHC-independent Overcomes tumor MHC molecule downregulation Potent in recognizing any cell-surface antigen (protein, carbohydrate, or glycolipid) Applicable to a broad range of patients and T-cell populations Production of large numbers of tumor-specific cells in a moderately short period	Capable of targeting only cell-surface antigens Lethal toxicity due to cytokine storm reported Difficulties of target selection Most mutations occur in intracellular proteins