Table 3.

Effects of the study meals on urinary concentrations of trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) and choline adjusted for creatinine (Cr) change from 0 min study-baseline. One-way ANOVA, Tukey-Kramer post hoc test showed a significant effect of study meal for TMAO and choline change from baseline as indicated by different letter superscripts. Values are mean ± SEM, n = 37 per study meal.

(nmol/mmol Cr in Urine)	No Choline	Choline Bitartrate	Phosphatidylcholine	p Value
TMAO	2.3 ± 1.4 a	9.6 ± 2.2 b	2.9 ± 1.7 a	p = 0.01
Free choline	0.5 ± 0.1 a	1.3 ± 0.2 b	0.9 ± 0.1 b	p = 0.0005