. 2020 Sep 3;15:95. doi: 10.1186/s13020-020-00374-2

Table 3.

Previously reported traditional uses, documented pharmacological/chemical activity, and toxicological data on the medicinal plants indicated for managing diseases of the respiratory system by herbalists in Kisumu East Sub County

Plant name	Previously reported traditional use	Reported pharmacological/chemical activity	Type of study	Toxicological data
Acanthus polystachyus Delile	Malaria [12], scorpion bite [13]	Antimalarial activity [14]	In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [14]	The methanol leaf extract was reported to be non-toxic in mice with a median lethal dose of > 2000 mg/kg [14]
Aloe kedongensis Reynolds	Malaria [15]	Antiplasmodial activity (aqueous leaf extract), leishmanicidal activity (aqueous and methanol extracts) [16]	In vitro (semi-automated microdilution assay, anti-leishmanial assay, anti-promastigote assay, anti-amastigote assay, MTT assay) [16]	The aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were reported to have low cytotoxicity against human embryonic lung fibroblast (HELF) cell lines (CC₅₀ > 500 µg/mL) [16]
Allium sativum L.	Malaria, wound disinfectant, intestinal infections [17], cold [18], aphrodisiac [19]	Chemoprophylaxis against lead nitrate induced toxicity in mice [20], increase in the weight of seminal vesicles and epididymis of male animals and elevation of sperm count [21], antibacterial and antifungal activity (essential oil extracts) [22]	In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [20], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [21], in vitro (disc diffusion and yeast glucose Chloramphenicol Agar method) [22]	The LD₅₀ in rabbits was reported to be 3034 mg/kg with a maximum tolerated dose of 2200 mg/kg [23]. Mortality in rabbits was recorded at 3200 and 4200 mg/kg. Anorexia and paralysis were observed in rabbits at high doses [23] The aqueous extract at a 300 mg/kg dose was reported to have mild toxicity symptoms in Wistar rats, but doses of 600 mg/kg and 1200 mg/kg were reported to elevate biochemical parameters. No toxicity was reported up to a dose of 2500 mg/kg and LD₅₀ was reported to be > 5000 mg/kg [24]
Rhus natalensis Bernh.	Diarrhea, influenza [25] Respiratory disorders, Malaria [26]	Antinociceptive activity (dichloromethane-methanol extract) [27], antibacterial activity (aqueous extract) [25]	In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [27], in vitro (Standard plate count method) [25]	3-(Z)-heptadec-14-enyl) benzene-1-ol isolated from the ethyl acetate root extract of R. natalensis was reported to be toxic in brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 7.25 µg/mL), induced apoptosis, and caused cell cycle arrest [28]
Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst.	Skin diseases [29], tuberculosis [30]	Antibacterial activity (aqueous and methanol root extracts) [31], uterotonic activity in uterine strips of pregnant rats [32], diuretic activity (aqueous, methanol, and ethanol stem bark extracts) [33]	In vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [31], ex vivo (Wistar rats; organ bath) [32], in vivo (Wistar rats) [33]	The 80% ethanolic stem bark extract was reported to be cytotoxic against MDA-MB-231 (breast), PANC-1 (pancreas), and HT-29 (colon) cancer cell lines [34] Dibenzocyclo-Octadiene, a lignan constituent was reported to have antimitotic activity [35]. Steganacin (an isolated compound) was reported to inhibit the polymerization of tubulin and to slow the depolymerization of pre-formed microtubules in the sea urchin egg assay [36]
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl	Respiratory infections [37], chest pains [38, 39]	Anti-bacterial activity (S. aureus, E. coli) [40]	In vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [40]	No acute toxicity was observed in mice at oral therapeutic doses of up to 250 mg/kg [41]. The methanol root bark and the aqueous and methanol root extracts were reported to be cytotoxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 255.06 µg/mL, 260.34 µg/mL, and 186.71 µg/mL respectively) [42, 43]
Artemisia annua L.	Fever [18]	Antimicrobial activity [44] antioxidant activity [45], cytotoxicity [46–49]	In vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [44] In vitro (total phenolic content assay, total flavonoid content assay, Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay) [45], in vitro (Resazurin assay, cytogenetic assay) [46–49]	The dichloromethane and methanol extracts were reported to be cytotoxic against Trypanosoma brucei brucei (TC221 cells) [50] Artemisinin and quercetagetin 6,7,3′,4′-tetramethyl ether were reported to be cytotoxic against P-388, A-549, HT-29, MCF-7, and KB tumor cells [47]. The ethanol extract was reported to be cytotoxic against Molt-4 human leukemia cells and normal leukocytes [48]. The methanol extract was reported to be cytotoxic and genotoxic against meristem cells of Allium cepa [49]
Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze	Ovarian cysts [17], malaria [17, 51]	Antioxidant activity (leaf extracts) [52], cancer cell line cytotoxicity [53], antiplasmodial activity (dichloromethane leaf extract) [54]	In vitro (2,2-diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) assay) [52], In vitro (Resazurin assay) [53], In vitro (lactate dehydrogenase assay) [54]	The organic leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against CCRF-CEM leukemia and decreased cell growth by 48% [53]
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray	Diabetes, malaria [55, 56], abscesses, snake bite [56]	Antiplasmodial activity (ethanol leaf extracts) [57], antibacterial and antifungal activity (aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts) [58], antiplasmodial activity [59]	In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [57], in vitro (Agar diffusion method) [58], In vitro (Semi-automated microdilution technique) [59]	Sesquiterpenoids isolated form the 80% ethanol extract of aerial parts were reported to be cytotoxic against HL-60 leukemia cells [60] Acetyltagitinin E and Tagitinine-F (leaf isolated compounds) were reported to be selectively cytotoxic against Hep G2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells [61]. Tagitinin C (isolated from the leaves) was reported to be cytotoxic against colon cancer, other malignant cell lines [62, 63], and brine shrimp larvae [64]
Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth.	Pneumonia [65], tuberculosis [30], measles in children [39]	Antibacterial activity (ethanol stem bark and fruit extracts) [66], antifungal activity [67], antibacterial, antifungal, antigiardial, and anticancer properties (Aqueous and methanol fruit extracts) [68]	In vitro (Micro titre plate bioassay) [66], in vitro (Agar diffusion method) [67], in vitro (Modified disc diffusion method) [68]	A 2000 mg/kg oral dose of the aqueous extract of the fruit was reported to cause hepatorenal toxic effects in Wistar rats [69] An 80% methanol extract of the fruit and roots was reported to be cytotoxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 240 µg/mL and 7.2 µg/mL respectively) [70] The aqueous bark extract was reported to be toxic to the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) [71] The aqueous fruit extract was reported to be toxic to Artemia franciscana nauplii toxic with an LC₅₀ value of 477 µg/mL [68] Compounds isolated from the hexane fraction of the stem bark were reported to be toxic against LLC/MK2 (monkey kidney epithelial cells) [72] The aqueous stem bark extract had a dose-dependent mortality on culet mosquito larvae [73] The ethanol stem bark extract was reported to be nontoxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ > 1000 µg/mL) [74]
Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl.	Malaria, fever [75], swollen testicles, and abdominal pains [39], pneumonia [25]	Antifungal and antibacterial activity (Ethanolic root extract) [76]	in vitro (Agar diffusion technique) [76]	The 95% ethanol extract was reported to be nontoxic in mice and no mortality was observed even at concentrations of up to 5000 mg/kg. However, drowsiness in doses between 1200 and 5000 mg/kg was reported [77] The compounds isolated from the methanol stem bark fraction (resveratrol derivatives) were reported to have low cytotoxicity on prostate cancer cell lines [78]. The ethanol root extract was reported to be nontoxic in brine shrimp larvae [74]
Warburgia salutaris (G.Bertol) Chiov	Chest complaints, cough, fever, pneumonia [79], yellow fever [80], common cold, malaria [81], Aspergillosis [82]	Fungicidal activity against Fusarium species (Acetone extract) [83] antimycobacterial activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis, S. epidermis, M. luteus, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae) [84]	in vitro (Hole plate diffusion method, microdilution method) [83], in vitro (Bioautography assay) [84]	The acetone leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against cancer cell lines [85]
Carica papaya L.	Malaria, liver disease [12], tuberculosis [30], malaria, [86, 87], fever [18]	Antibacterial activity (Methanol root extract) [88], antitumour activity and immunomodulatory effects (Aqueous leaf extract) [89]	in vitro (Cup plate agar diffusion method) [88], in vitro (Cell viability assay, caspase assay, microarray analysis) [89]	The aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts were reported to be cytotoxic on human oral squamous cell carcinoma SCC25 cell lines [90] The aqueous leaf extract was reported to disrupt cell division and to induce mitotic spindle disturbance in Allium cepa [91] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against LLC-MK2 cell lines [92] The aqueous leaf extract was reported to be non-toxic in Sprague Dawley rats at a 2000 mg/kg dose [93] No morphological alterations were reported in Sprague Dawley rats treated with a 28-day repeated oral dose of 2000 mg/kg [94] Aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts were reported to be nontoxic at doses of up to 5000 mg/kg [95] The methanol leaf, root, and stem bark extracts were reported to be nontoxic against MRC-5 cell lines (CC₅₀ > 32 µg/mL) [96]
Terminalia brownii Fresen	Cough, bronchitis [97, 98], allergy, diabetes, malaria [25, 98], clotting agent, coughs and joint stiffness [99]	Anti-fertility effect (Ethyl acetate extracts) [100], antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and B. subtilis (Aqueous bark extract) [25]	in vivo (Swiss mice) [100], in vitro (Standard plate count method) [25]	Doses of between 500 and 1000 mg/kg of the methanol root bark extracts were reported to cause dullness and decreased activity of Swiss albino rats [101]
Ipomoea kituiensis Var	Constipation, digestive disorders [99]	Acaricidal activity (Methanol:DCM (1:1 v/v) leaf extract) [102]	in vivo (Modified larval packet test) [102]	The aqueous extract was reported to be moderately toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 136.96 µg/mL) [102]
Euclea divinorum Hiern.	Stomachache [103], bleeding [104], diarrhea, typhoid , stroke [105], toothache [99]	Contractile activity of isolated rabbit uterine strips (aqueous and ethanol root bark extracts) [106]	ex vivo (Organ bath; Swiss white rabbits) [106]	The aqueous and organic root extracts were reported to cause retarded growth and altered biochemical parameters in mice [107] The methanol root extract was reported to be cytotoxic against MEC-5 fibroblast cells (IC₅₀ = 27.5 ± 3.6 µg/mL) [108]
Croton megalocarpus Del.	Influenza, pneumonia, wounds, family planning, typhoid, over bleeding during menstruation cycle and birth [105]	Antibacterial and antifungal activities (petroleum ether and aqueous leaf extracts) [109], antifungal activity (The methanol leaf extract) [110]	in vitro (Agar well and disc diffusion assays) [109], in vitro (Agar well diffusion technique) [110]	The LC₅₀ was reported to be < 250 µg/mL in the brine shrimp lethality assay [111]
Croton dichogamous Pax	Chest congestion (wheezing) [112] Polio like-symptoms, gonorrhea, chest pains [39] Threatened abortion, infertility [113] Pesticidal activity [114]	No reports	No reports	No reports
Harungana madagascariensis Lam. Ex Poir	Gastrointestinal disorders [115]	Antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa (Aqueous leaf extract) [115], antibacterial activity against S. typhi, S. paratyphi, S. paratyphi B and S. typhimurium (Aqueous extracts) [116], antibacterial activity (Astilbin or 3-O-α-l-rhamnoside-5,73,4′-tetrahydroxydihydroflavonol) [117]	in vitro (Modified agar well diffusion method) [115] In vitro (Broth dilution technique) [116], in vitro (Solid dilution method, bioautography) [117]	The aqueous leaf extract was reported to induce liver damage at high doses of > 100 mg/kg and > 200 mg/kg in female and male rats respectively [118]. A 400 mg/kg dose of the iso saline leaf extract administered intraperitoneally in Sprague-Dawley rats significantly elevated serum levels of alanine and aspartate aminotransferase, and significantly lowered the blood glucose levels [119].
Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel	Epilepsy, diarrhea, nasopharyngeal infection, intestinal spams [120]	Antibacterial activity against S. pyogenes, K. pneumoniae (95% ethanolic extract) [121] Antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger (1:1 dichloromethane/methanol (1:1) extract) [122]	in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [121], in vitro (Disc diffusion method) [122]	Reported to contain cytotoxic substances that affect mitotic active tissue [123]. There was no indication of mutagenesis when dichloromethane and 70% ethanol extracts were tested on S. typhimurium (Ames test) (TA98) [124]
Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) R.Br.ex Vatke	Malaria [125] Febrile convulsions, Abdominal colic [126] Respiratory infections [37] Pneumonia [25]	Antibacterial and antifungal activity (Organic root extract) [127], antibacterial activity (Aqueous and methanol leaf extract) [128], antiplasmodial activity (Methanol leaf extract) [129]	in vitro (Agar disc diffusion method) [127], in vitro (agar diffusion method) [128], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [129]	The dichloromethane root bark extract was reported to be nontoxic on L6 cells (IC₅₀ > 90 µg/mL) [130]. The methanol root extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp [131]
Plectranthus barbatus Andr.	Abdominal pain, diarrhea [132], tuberculosis [30], malaria [133], wounds, swelling, joint pain, stomach problems, malaria [134], ashtma [135]	Larvicidal properties (Eugenol, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene l) [136], anticonvulsant activity (Hydroalcoholic leaf extract) [137], inhibition of HIV-1 enzymes, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities (Ethanol leaf extract) [138]	in vivo (Third instar mosquito larvae) [136], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [137], in vitro (MTT assay, flow cytometric analysis, HIV-1 protease fluorogenic assay, HIV-1 transcriptase colorimetric assay, DPPH free radical scavenging assay) [138]	The ethanol extract was reported to have low cytotoxicity against PBMCs and TZM-bl cell lines (IC₅₀ values = 83.7 and 50.4 µg/mL respectively) [138] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be toxic to Artemia salina (LC₅₀ = 186.33 µg/mL) [139] The chloroform aerial part extract was reported to reduce the viability of undifferentiated/anaplastic thyroid cancer cell lines [140]
Vitex doniana Sweet	Hypertension, diabetes, ulcers [141], malaria, measles [142], gastroenteritis, diarrhea [143], diuretic, diabetes [144]	Antimicrobial activity (Methanol stem bark extract) [145, 146], antioxidant activity (Aqueous leaf extract) [147], wound healing properties (Hydroalcoholic stem bark extract) [148]	in vitro (Paper disc assay method, Agar well diffusion method) [145, 146], in vitro (DPPH assay) and in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [147], in vivo (ICR mice) [148]	The organic leaf and bark extracts were reported to be non-toxic to mammalian L6 cell lines (IC₅₀ > 90 µg/mL) [149]
Acacia robusta Burch.	Malaria [150], fibroids [113]	Antifungal activity (Methanol root bark extract) [151]	in vitro (Broth dilution) [151]	The methanol stem bark extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp (LC₅₀ = 108.5 µg/mL) [70]
Albizia zygia (DC.) J.J.Macbr.	Antimalarial activity [152, 153], anticancer [154], cough, fever, aphrodisiac, counter female sterility [155], bronchial disease, fever [156]	Antimicrobial activity (Methanol and hexane extracts) [155], anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity (Ethanol stem bark extract) [157]	in vitro (Agar diffusion) [155], in vivo (chicks), and in vitro (DPPH) [157]	The ethanol stem bark extract was reported to be nontoxic against MRC-5 cells (> 64 µg/mL) [96] The methanol extract was reported to be more toxic to brine shrimp than the non-polar n-hexane extract (LC₅₀ 1.70 µg/mL compared to 174.19 µg/mL) [155]
Rhynchosia elegans var. elegans	Malaria, common cold, fever [12]	No reports	No reports	No reports
Tamarindus indica L.	Malaria [158, 159], constipation, jaundice [97], aphrodisiac [19], general wellbeing [18], sexually transmitted infections [99]	Antibacterial activity against P. mirabilis (Acetone stem bark extract) [160], antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and P.aeurigenosa (Aqueous pulp extract) [161]	in vitro (Paper disc diffusion method) [160], in vitro (disc diffusion method) [161]	The LD₅₀ values of various crude extracts and 25–50% fractions were reported to be in the range of between 832 and 5019 µg/mL [162] The acute oral toxicity studies of the pulp extract at 3000 mg/kg and 5000 mg/kg body weight resulted in no mortality in Wistar albino rats [163]
Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc.	Epilepsy, infertility in women, renal disease, cancer [132]	Antibacterial activity (Methanol extracts) [164], antifungal activity, and cytotoxicity (Ethyl acetate extracts) [165]	in vitro (disk-diffusion assay) [164], in vitro (Broth microdilution method) and in vivo (brine shrimp cytotoxicity) [165]	The dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous extracts were reported to be toxic to brine shrimp (LC₅₀ = 203.66 µg/mL, 7.58 µg/mL, and 17.57 µg/mL respectively) [165]
Azadirachta indica (L) Burm.	Malaria [159, 166], scabies, control blood sugar levels [167], tuberculosis [30]	Antibacterial activity against S. typhi and antifungal activity against C. albicans (n-hexane extract) [168], antioxidant and antibacterial properties (50% ethanol leaf extract) [169]	in vitro (Ditch well diffusion method) [168], in vitro (Agar well diffusion method [169]	The aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were reported to be non-toxic against MRC-5 cells (CC₅₀ > 32 µg/mL) [96] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 233.061 µg/mL) [42] The aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were reported to be toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 101.26 and 61.43 µg/mL respectively) [43].
Khaya senegalensis Desr. A. Juss	Diabetes, hypertension [170], hepatic inflammations, sinusitis [97]. malaria [87]	Antibacterial activity against S. enterica subsp. Enterica serovar typhi (50% ethanolic leaf extract) [171], in vivo hypoglycemic activity (Ethyl acetate extract) [172], hepatoprotective effects [173], antioxidant activity (Ethanolic extract) [174]	in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [171], in vivo (rats) [172], in vivo (rats) [173], in vitro (DPPH radical scavenging assay, deoxyribose assay, Nitric oxide radical scavenging assay) [174]	Orally administered ethanol stem bark extract in rats at a dose of 2 mg/kg for 18 days was reported to induce the synthesis of liver enzymes [175]. The subchronic administration of the aqueous stem bark extract to rats was reported to affect the cellular integrity of vital organs of the body [176]. Sub-chronic administration of the aqueous stem bark extract in albino rats was reported to cause the elevation of liver enzymes, and to Increase plasma total protein, blood urea, and creatinine [177].
Mollugo nudicaulis Lam.	Whooping cough and jaundice [178]	Antioxidant and antibacterial activity(Methanol leaf extract) [179], antidiabetic properties (Ethanolic whole-plant extract) [180]	in vitro (Total phenolic content assay, total flavonoid content assay, ABTS scavenging activity assay, DPPH radical scavenging assay, agar disc diffusion assay) [179] in vivo (Wistar rats) [180]	No reports
Moringa oleifera Lam.	Malnutrition [75], tuberculosis [30], loss of memory, prostate cancer [105], flu, asthma, hypertension, malaria [181]	Antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus (Fresh leaf juice and aqueous seed extracts) [182], chemoprophylaxis against Artesunate-amodiaquine induced liver damage (aqueous-methanol leaf extracts) [183]	in vitro (Paper disc diffusion method) [182], in vivo (Wistar rats) [183]	The aqueous leaf extract was reported to increase the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapy on pancreatic cancer cells [184] The organic leaf extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp larvae [185] The aqueous extract was reported to be strongly cytotoxic on Hela cells [186]
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh	Tuberculosis [30], malaria, liver disorders [75], respiratory tract congestion, chronic bronchitis, coughing, tuberculosis [187]	Antibacterial activity (Essential oil from the leaves) [188], antibacterial activity against H. pylori (N-hexane and chloroform leaf extract) [189], antimycobacterial activity against M. tuberculosis and M. bovis strains (Methanol extracts) [190]	in vitro (Aromatogram, micro atmosphere test, broth dilution method [188], in vitro (Agar disc diffusion) [189], in vitro (Resazurin microtiter assay) [190]	The aqueous-acetone extract was reported to be cytotoxic on MCF-7 and HCT-116 cell lines [191] The essential oils from fresh leaves were reported to inhibit egg hatchability and to suppress the second stage juvenile viability of root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita [192] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against human breast cancer cell lines (MCF 7 and MDA-MB-231) cell lines [193] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic on P19 embryonal carcinoma cells [194]
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels.	Asthma, bronchitis, sore throat [195], coughing, diabetes, dysentery, ringworms, inflammation [196], diarrhea, dysentery, wounds, constipation [167]	Anti-inflammatory activity in mice (Ethanol bark extract) [197], hypoglycemic activity (Aqueous bark extract) [198]	in vivo (mice) [197] in vivo (rats) [198]	The methanol extract was reported to have an LD₅₀ value of > 5000 mg/kg in mice [199] The ethanol extract was reported to be nontoxic to rats at doses of up to 5000 mg/kg [200] The ethanol bark extract was reported to be nontoxic in mice at doses of up to 10.125 g/kg [197]
Ximenia americana L.	Throat infection, amenorrhea, wound healing, pain [201]	Antimicrobial activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and P. vulgaris (bark, leaf, and root extracts) [202], antioxidant activity (Methanol stem bark extract) [203]	in vitro (cup-plate agar diffusion method) [202], in vitro (DPPH radical scavenging assay) [203]	The methanol stem bark extract was reported to be nontoxic against MRC-5 cell lines (CC₅₀ = 64 µg/mL) [96]
Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr	Colds, cleanser [105], chest problems [134]	Antifungal activity against C. albicans [204]	in vitro (Liquid dilution method) [204]	The oral administration of an 80% methanol leaf extract did not result in any physical signs e.g. depression, decrease in feeding activity, and hair erection in Swiss albino mice [205]
Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn.	Hypertension [170] Treat dysentery, urinary tract infections [206]	Antimicrobial activity against C. coli, C. jejuni, S. aureus (Aqueous extract) [206], antiplasmodial activity (80% methanol root bark extract) [207], viricidal activity against African Swine Fever Virus (Ethanol root extract) [208]	in vitro (disc diffusion method) [206], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [207], in vitro (Plaque titration technique) [208]	The ethanol root extract was reported to be non-toxic on human carcinoma cell lines [209]
Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson	Malaria [166]	Antimycobacterial activity against pathogenic and non-pathogenic Mycobacterium species [210]	in vitro (Bioautography and the modified two-fold serial dilution microplate method; anti mycobacterial activity) [210], in vitro cytotoxicity; MTT assay [210]	The acetone leaf extract was reported to have an LC₅₀ of 0.142 in vero cell lines and 0.063 in SI C3 A cell lines [210]
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.	Arthritis, sexually transmitted infections [26], stomach ache, coughs, malaria [99] Malaria [133]	Antifungal activity [211], antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, and molluscicidal activity [212]	in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [211], in vivo (Molluscs) [212]	The methanol root bark extract was reported to be cytotoxic in brine shrimp (LC₅₀ = 198.498 µg/mL) [42]
Teclea nobilis Del.	Antipyretic [213], malaria, headache, joint pains, common cold, pneumonia, intestinal worms, chest pain [134], arthritis [39]	Antipyretic and analgesic activity and found to be weakly active against carrageenan edema (Ethanol leaf extract) [214], anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities (Acetonitrile leaf extract, hexane leaf extract, and Lupeol) [215], anti-caseinolytic activity against B. arietans venom (Methanol root extract) [216]	in vivo (Wistar-Nossan rats) [214], in vivo (Wistar rats) [215], in vitro (Spectrophotometry) [216]	The dichloromethane and ethanol extracts of aerial parts were reported to be cytotoxic to brine shrimp (LC₅₀ = 75.5 µg/mL and 156.6 µg/mL respectively) [217]
Toddalia asiatica L.	Sore throat, Malaria [218], fever, stomach ache [219], abdominal pains, gynecologic disorders including infertility, common colds, cancer, renal disorders [132], tuberculosis, [30], common cold, fever, malaria, pneumonia, chest pain [134], colds, respiratory diseases e.g. cold, asthma, chest pain, toothache [105], malaria and bark for respiratory disorders [39]	Larvicidal activity (Hexane, acetone, and methanol leaf extracts) [220], antifungal activity against Candida albicans (Ethyl acetate leaf extracts) [221], antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects (1:1 dichloromethane-methanol root extract) [222]	in vivo (Aedes egyptii and Culex quinquefasciatus) [220], in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [221], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [222]	Compound 13 isolated from the root was reported to be cytotoxic against the MCF-7 cell line (IC₅₀ = 8.7 µg/mL) but was inactive on Vero cells. Alkaloid 11 was reported to be cytotoxic against KB, NCI-H187, MCF-7, and vero cell lines (IC50 values ranging from 0.8 to 11.6 µg/mL) [223] Essential oils from the leaves were reported to be cytotoxic against breast (MCF-7) and colorectal (HT-29) cancer cell lines [224] (IC₅₀ values = 7.80 µg/mL and 100.0 µg/mL respectively). Benzo[c]phenanthridine and secobenzo[c]phenantridine alkaloids isolated from the ethanol root extract was reported to be cytotoxic on tumor cell lines [225] The acute toxicity and cytotoxicity of the aqueous, ethyl acetate, and methanol leaf extract and root extracts were reported to be > 1000 mg/kg (LD₅₀) and > 100 µg/mL (CC₅₀) respectively [219] The alkaloid (1,3)benzodioxolo(5,6-c)phenanthridine, 12,13-dihydro-2,3-dimethoxy-12-methyl-(dihydronitidine) was reported to be highly cytotoxic to human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) cells [226]
Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Eng) Engl.	Tuberculosis [30], malaria [166], pneumonia, [134], cough, cervical cancer [227]	Antibacterial activity against S. aureus (Methanol extracts) [128], antihyperglycemic activity (Aqueous stem bark extract) [228], antimicrobial activity against B. cereus and MRSA (Aqueous root bark extract) [229], antiplasmodial activity (Aqueous root bark extract) [230]	in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [128], in vivo (Wistar rats) [228], in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [229], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [230]	The methanol root bark extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp (LC₅₀ = 68.9 µg/mL) [70] The ethanol root extract was reported to be toxic in brine shrimp larvae (38.51 µg/mL) [74] The organic root extract of Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Eng) Engl. (Rutaceae) was reported to be cytotoxic in brine shrimp (LC₅₀ = 11 µg/mL) [231] A 2000 mg/kg dose of the aqueous and organic extracts were reported to be nontoxic in mice [230] The organic extract was reported to be toxic in brine shrimp larvae (LC₅₀ = 42.73 µg/mL) [230]
Zanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) P.G.Waterman	Malaria [51]	Antiplasmodial activity against P. falciparum (50% MeOH in CH₂Cl₂ extract) [232]	in vitro (non-radioactive Malaria SYBR Green I assay) [232]	Lupeol (an isolated compound) was reported to be cytotoxic against a panel of drug-sensitive and MDR tumor cells via multiple mechanisms with marginal or no effect on normal cells at similar doses [233]. The ethanol stem bark extract was reported to be cytotoxic on leukemia CCRF-CEM cells (IC₅₀=9.04 µg/mL) [234].
Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl	Threatened abortion/contraception [113] Pain [128] Malaria, liver disease and otitis [235] Malaria [159]	Antibacterial activity (Buffered methanol (80% methanol and 20% PBS) and acetone) [236], hypoglycemic activity(Aqueous leaf extracts) [237]	in vitro (Agar well disc diffusion assay) [236], in vivo (Wistar rats) [237]	The methanol (70%) extract of aerial parts was reported to be more cytotoxic on MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines than doxorubicin (IC50 = 0.77 µg/mL and 3.45 µg/mL respectively) [238]
Rhoicissus revoilii Planch	Pneumonia, tonsillitis [239]	Antifungal activity against C. albicans (Ethanol extract) [239]	in vitro (Agar well disc diffusion assay) [239]	No reports