TABLE 1.
Overview of the studies that were included in the meta‐analysis
| Study ID/author | Type of NFB | Participants | ROIs | Pretraining run type | Pretraining task |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1/Auer et al. (2015) | Activity | Healthy (N = 16) | SMC | Functional localizer | Overt finger movements |
| 2/Blefari et al. (2015) | Activity | Healthy (N = 11) | M1 | Functional localizer | Active isometric pinching |
| 3/Emmert et al. (2017) | Activity | Tinnitus (N = 14) | Auditory cortex | Functional localizer | Pulsating 1 kHz tone |
| 4/Megumi et al. (2015) | Functional connectivity | Healthy (N = 12) | Left lateral parietal, left M1 | No‐feedback run | Finger tapping imagery |
| 5/Keynan et al. (in prep) | Activity | Healthy (N = 33) | Amygdala | Functional localizer | Hariri face recognition |
| 6/Kim et al. (2015) | Activity, functional connectivity | Tobacco use disorder (N = 14) | ACC, mPFC, OFC, PCC, precuneus | No‐feedback run | Resist urge to smoke while viewing smoking‐related video clips |
| 7/Kirschner et al. (2018) | Activity | Healthy (N = 27), cocaine use disorder (N = 24) | VTA | No‐feedback run | Reward imagery |
| 8/Kirschner et al. (in prep) | Activity | Schizophrenia (N = 14) | VTA | No‐feedback run | Reward imagery |
| 9/Koush et al. (2013) | Effective connectivity | Healthy (N = 7) | Visual cortex, SPL | Functional localizer | Flickering checkerboards |
| 10/Koush et al. (2015) | Effective connectivity | Healthy (N = 9) | Amygdala, dmPFC | No‐feedback run | Imagery of positive social situations |
| 11/Liew et al. (in prep.) | Functional connectivity | Healthy (N = 10) | Left PMC, left SMA | Functional localizer | Movement imagery |
| 12/MacInnes et al. (2016) | Activity | Healthy (N = 19) | VTA | No‐feedback run | Imagery of motivation |
| 13/Marins et al. (2015) | Activity | Healthy (N = 14) | Left PMC | ROI‐engaging run | Overt finger tapping |
| 14/McDonald et al. (2017) | Activity | Healthy (N = 16), psychiatric patients (N = 22) | Default mode network | ROI‐engaging run | Moral dilemma task |
| 15/Pamplona et al. (in prep) | Activity | Healthy (N = 15) | Default mode network, attention network | No‐feedback run | Attention‐related imagery |
| 16/Papoutsi et al. (2018) | Activity | Huntington's disease (N = 10) | SMA | Functional localizer | Fist clenching |
| 17/ Papoutsi et al. (2020) | Activity, functional connectivity | Huntington's disease (N = 16) | SMA, left striatum | No‐feedback run | Motor imagery |
| 18/Scharnowski et al. (2015) | Activity, differential | Healthy (N = 7) | SMA, PHC | Functional localizer | 1: Bimanual finger tapping, 2: Outdoor scenes versus faces |
| 19/Scharnowski et al. (2012) | Activity | Healthy (N = 10) | Visual cortex | Functional localizer | Flickering checkerboard |
| 20/Yao et al. (2016) | Activity | Healthy (N = 18) | Anterior insula | Functional localizer | Painful situations versus neutral pictures |
| 21/Sorger, Kamp, Weiskopf, Peters, and Goebel (2018) | Activity (levels) | Healthy (N = 10) | Individually different | Functional localizer | Individually different tasks |
| 22/Spetter et al. (2017) | Functional connectivity | Obesity (N = 8) | dlPFC, vmPFC | Functional localizer | Rating food images |
| 23/Young et al. (2017) | Activity | Depression (N = 18) | Amygdala | ROI‐engaging run | Happy imagery |
| 24/Zich et al. (2020) | Functional connectivity | Adolescents (N = 27) | Amygdala, dlPFC | Functional localizer | Social scenes task |
Note: We included data from 24 different studies, covering healthy subjects and patients, a large range of trained regions of interest, and activity‐based as well as connectivity‐based neurofeedback paradigms.
Abbreviations: ACC, anterior cingulate cortex, dlPFC; dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex; M1, primary motor cortex; OFC, orbitofrontal cortex; PCC, posterior cingulate cortex; PMC, pre‐motor cortex; PHC, parahippocampal cortex; SMA, supplementary motor cortex; SMC, somatomotor cortex; SPL, superior parietal lobe, VTA, ventral tegmental area.