Table 6.
Impact of HI on OOP.
| Outcome variable | DID | DID with PSM | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| VHI | HSHI | VHI | HSHI | |||||
| Pooled OLS | Fixed-effects | Pooled OLS | Fixed-effects | Pooled OLS | Fixed-effects | Pooled OLS | Fixed-effects | |
| Probability of having outpatient OOP | 0.038∗∗∗ (0.013) | 0.038 (0.195) | 0.037∗∗ (0.017) | 0.037∗∗∗ (0.008) | 0.029∗∗ (0.014) | 0.029 (0.018) | 0.060∗∗∗ (0.019) | 0.059∗∗ (0.018) |
| Probability of having inpatient OOP | 0.014∗∗ (0.006) | 0.015∗∗ (0.004) | 0.007 (0.009) | 0.008 (0.014) | 0.012∗ (0.007) | 0.012∗∗∗ (0.002) | 0.005 (0.010) | 0.004 (0.016) |
| Log of outpatient OOP | −0.278∗∗∗ (0.092) | −0.291∗∗∗ (0.059) | −0.422∗∗∗ (0.126) | −0.418∗∗∗ (0.042) | −0.315∗∗∗ (0.098) | −0.343∗∗∗ (0.038) | −0.285∗ (0.149) | −0.295∗ (0.130) |
| Log of inpatient OOP | −0.535∗∗ (0.257) | −0.565∗∗ (0.177) | −0.282 (0.239) | −0.315 (0.286) | −0.643∗∗ (0.302) | −0.645∗ (0.248) | −0.059 (0.273) | −0.058 (0.167) |
| Log of total OOP | −0.221∗∗ (0.090) | −0.229∗∗ (0.051) | −0.368∗∗∗ (0.123) | −0.362∗∗∗ (0.037) | −0.293∗∗∗ (0.095) | −0.310∗∗∗ (0.024) | −0.299∗∗ (0.142) | −0.305 (0.158) |
| Log of OOP per visit at district hospital | −1.236∗∗∗ (0.186) | −1.282∗∗∗ (0.081) | −1.012∗∗∗ (0.207) | −0.999∗∗∗ (0.102) | −1.396∗∗∗ (0.206) | −1.438∗∗∗ (0.096) | −1.014∗∗∗ (0.306) | −1.004∗ (0.263) |
| Log of OOP per visit at provincial hospital | −0.388∗∗∗ (0.148) | −0.408 (0.269) | −0.147 (0.204) | −0.149 (0.255) | −0.381∗∗ (0.153) | −0.385 (0.238) | −0.107 (0.262) | −0.095 (0.230) |
∗∗∗ p < 0.01; ∗∗p < 0.05; ∗p < 0.1. DID = difference-in-difference; PSM = propensity score matching; OLS = ordinary least squares. Notes: clustered-robust standard errors are reported in brackets of fixed-effects estimates, robust standard errors are reported in brackets of pooled OLS estimates. Standard errors are adjusted for clustering at the household level. Control variables include age, gender, ethnicity, marital status, education level, occupation, household size, household composition, expenditure and other assets of household (motorcycles, telephones, radio, TV, or computer), access to clean water, toilet, reported health status of individuals, and geographical location.