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. 2020 Sep 3;10:13996. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-70682-y

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Probabilities of elephants occupying certain positions within all-male groups. Blue squares represent observed probabilities of occupying a certain position against box plots (with median, interquartile range, minimum and maximum values) of randomly permuted probabilities. (a) Older mature males were more likely to lead groups than expected by chance. Observed probability for ages: 10–15 = 0.097, 95% CI random = (0.128–0.277), p = 0.004; 16–20 = 0.167, 95% CI random = (0.187–0.270), p = 0.005; 21–25 = 0.313, 95% CI random = (0.194–0.312), p = 0.045; 26+ = 0.333, 95% CI random = (0.180–0.305), p = 0.004. (b) Adult males were less likely to occupy the middle position in traveling groups, and adolescents more likely than expected by chance. Observed probability for ages: 10–15 = 0.759, 95% CI random = (0.570–0.736), p = 0.012; 16–20 = 0.715, 95% CI random = (0.577–0.663), p < 0.001; 21–25 = 0.510, 95% CI random = (0.518–0.655), p = 0.028; 26+ = 0.412, 95% CI random = (0.511–0.654), p < 0.001. (c) Males of no age-class were more or less likely compared to chance to occupy the rear of traveling groups. All observed probabilities (blue squares) fell within range of randomly permuted probabilities of occupying the rear of groups (boxplots).