FIGURE 2.

The role of microbial products in different liver diseases

Intestinal dysbiosis is observed in alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC). A and B: ALD- and NAFLD-associated dysbiosis increases lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and secondary bile acids, leading to an increase of primary bile acids. ALD also increases fungal β-glucan and decreases butyrate level. In NAFLD, an increase of ethanol and a decrease of choline are also observed. C: in PBC, increases of serum choline and LPS are observed in addition to decreases in hepatic choline and secondary-to-primary bile acid ratio.