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. 2020 Sep 5;48(5):2461–2491. doi: 10.1007/s11116-020-10136-6

Table 5.

Results from multiple log-linear regression of daily travel duration in minutes (US knowledge workers on workday 2003–2017; n = 24,392)

Work-related travel daily minutes Maintenance travel daily minutes Discretionary travel daily minutes
Coef. Factor Chg. Coef. Factor Chg. Coef. Factor Chg.
Duration of work in minutes 0.001*** 1.001 − 0.003*** 0.997 − 0.002*** 0.998
Work location (base: workplace only)
 Home only − 3.14*** 0.04 − 0.44*** 0.65 − 0.13** 0.88
 Other home only − 0.96*** 0.38 0.42** 1.52 − 0.15 0.86
 Café/library only − 0.26 0.77 0.42** 1.52 0.36 1.43
 Vehicle only 1.80*** 6.03 0.03 1.03 0.08 1.08
 Unspecified − 0.39*** 0.68 0.03 1.03 0.15 1.16
 Workplace and home only − 0.04 0.96 0.14*** 1.15 0.00 1.00
 Workplace and other home only 0.29*** 1.34 0.34 1.41 0.32 1.38
 Workplace and café/library only 0.39*** 1.48 0.25** 1.29 0.10 1.11
 Workplace and vehicle only 1.28*** 3.61 0.00 1.00 − 0.25 0.78
 Workplace and unspecified only 0.27*** 1.31 0.56*** 1.75 0.20* 1.23
 Workplace and 2 or more 0.65*** 1.92 0.48*** 1.61 0.24** 1.27
 Home, not workplace and 1 or more − 0.03 0.97 0.39*** 1.47 0.10 1.10
Employment characteristics
Is paid hourly − 0.06*** 0.94 − 0.10*** 0.90 0.06** 1.06
Is part time − 0.08** 0.92 − 0.18*** 0.84 − 0.05 0.95
Has multiple jobs 0.09*** 1.10 0.08 1.09 0.10* 1.11
Is government worker − 0.12*** 0.89 0.06 1.07 0.06 1.06
Is nonprofit worker − 0.04 0.96 0.04 1.04 0.04 1.04
Occupations
 Base: Office/admin
 Management 0.00 1.00 − 0.03 0.97 − 0.01 0.99
 Business and financial 0.08** 1.09 − 0.04 0.96 0.06 1.06
 Computer and math. Science 0.07* 1.08 − 0.06 0.94 − 0.16*** 0.85
 Architecture and engineering 0.00 1.00 − 0.05 0.95 − 0.09 0.92
 Life, physical, and social science 0.03 1.03 − 0.01 0.99 − 0.07 0.93
 Community and social service 0.02 1.02 − 0.03 0.97 − 0.07 0.93
 Legal occupations 0.04 1.04 − 0.12 0.88 0.20* 1.22
 Education, training, and library − 0.11*** 0.90 − 0.07 0.93 − 0.07 0.93
 Arts, design, ent, sports 0.06 1.06 0.09 1.09 − 0.19** 0.83
 Healthcare practitioner/technical 0.00 1.00 − 0.11* 0.90 − 0.12** 0.88
 Sales and related 0.01 1.01 − 0.13** 0.87 − 0.05 0.95
Industries
 Base: Prof. and business services
 Agriculture − 0.45*** 0.64 0.10 1.10 0.07 1.07
 Mining 0.46*** 1.58 − 0.34 0.71 − 0.14 0.87
 Construction 0.14** 1.15 − 0.03 0.97 0.02 1.02
 Manufacturing − 0.03 0.97 0.03 1.03 − 0.05 0.95
 Wholesale and retail trade − 0.08** 0.92 − 0.12** 0.89 − 0.01 0.99
 Transportation and utilities − 0.02 0.98 0.05 1.05 − 0.03 0.97
 Information 0.02 1.02 − 0.17** 0.85 − 0.02 0.98
 Financial activities 0.00 1.00 − 0.01 0.99 − 0.03 0.97
 Education and health services − 0.04 0.96 − 0.14** 0.87 0.01 1.01
 Leisure and hospitality − 0.04 0.96 − 0.15 0.86 − 0.11 0.89
 Other services − 0.12** 0.88 − 0.08 0.93 0.07 1.07
 Public administration 0.16*** 1.17 − 0.19** 0.83 − 0.18*** 0.83
Education
 Base: High school or less
 Associates degree − 0.08*** 0.92 − 0.12*** 0.89 − 0.11*** 0.90
 Some college − 0.07*** 0.93 0.08** 1.08 − 0.01 0.99
 College degree or more 0.00 1.00 0.03 1.03 − 0.01 0.99
Family/demographic characteristics
Is married 0.08*** 1.09 − 0.09* 0.91 − 0.23*** 0.79
Number of children 0.02* 1.02 0.12*** 1.13 − 0.03** 0.97
Family income
 Base: less than 50 K
 50 K to 100 K − 0.07*** 0.93 − 0.09*** 0.91 − 0.07** 0.93
 More than 100 K 0.01 1.01 0.06 1.06 0.06** 1.07
Is female − 0.02 0.98 0.13*** 1.14 − 0.18*** 0.84
Race/Ethnicity
 Base: White non-Latino
 Black non-Latino 0.04 1.05 0.03 1.03 0.01 1.02
 Latino any race 0.04 1.04 0.02 1.02 0.02 1.02
 Other 0.02 1.02 − 0.11* 0.89 − 0.09 0.92
Female * number of children − 0.06*** 0.94 0.17*** 1.19 − 0.04* 0.96
Female * married − 0.04 0.97 0.02 1.02 0.09* 1.10
Age in years − 0.002** 1.00 − 0.004*** 1.00 − 0.01*** 0.99
Location and time
In metropolitan area 0.19*** 1.21 − 0.01 0.99 − 0.04 0.97
State
 Base: Pennsylvania
 Alabama − 0.05 0.95 0.38*** 1.46 0.02 1.02
 Alaska − 0.18 0.84 0.33 1.39 0.00 1.00
 Arizona − 0.05 0.95 − 0.21* 0.81 0.13 1.14
 Arkansas − 0.3*** 0.74 0.09 1.09 0.02 1.02
 California 0.03 1.03 0.13 1.14 − 0.06 0.94
 Colorado − 0.11 0.90 0.23** 1.26 − 0.09 0.91
 Connecticut − 0.16** 0.85 − 0.04 0.96 − 0.05 0.96
 Delaware 0.10 1.11 − 0.45* 0.63 − 0.38** 0.68
 District of Columbia − 0.05 0.95 0.06 1.06 − 0.23 0.80
 Florida 0.02 1.02 0.08 1.08 − 0.09 0.92
 Georgia 0.05 1.05 0.03 1.03 0.03 1.03
 Hawaii − 0.17 0.84 0.61** 1.85 − 0.12 0.89
 Idaho − 0.07 0.93 − 0.21 0.81 0.12 1.13
 Illinois 0.01 1.01 0.10 1.11 − 0.02 0.98
 Indiana − 0.05 0.95 0.08 1.08 − 0.06 0.94
 Iowa − 0.21*** 0.81 0.06 1.07 − 0.09 0.91
 Kansas − 0.16** 0.85 0.18 1.20 − 0.10 0.90
 Kentucky − 0.18*** 0.83 0.11 1.11 0.08 1.08
 Louisiana − 0.2*** 0.82 0.10 1.11 − 0.09 0.91
 Maine − 0.05 0.96 − 0.04 0.96 − 0.42*** 0.66
 Maryland 0.19*** 1.21 − 0.05 0.95 − 0.14 0.87
 Massachusetts 0.16*** 1.18 0.03 1.03 − 0.16 0.86
 Michigan − 0.17*** 0.84 0.14 1.15 0.06 1.06
 Minnesota − 0.08 0.92 0.00 1.00 − 0.02 0.98
 Mississippi − 0.07 0.93 − 0.03 0.97 0.03 1.04
 Missouri − 0.13** 0.88 0.17 1.18 − 0.04 0.96
 Montana − 0.22* 0.80 − 0.17 0.84 0.26 1.30
 Nebraska − 0.24*** 0.78 0.26* 1.30 0.02 1.02
 Nevada − 0.05 0.95 − 0.13 0.88 − 0.15 0.86
 New Hampshire − 0.01 0.99 0.11 1.12 0.22 1.25
 New Jersey 0.14** 1.15 − 0.09 0.91 − 0.18** 0.84
 New Mexico − 0.29*** 0.75 0.07 1.07 − 0.01 0.99
 New York 0.07 1.07 0.02 1.02 − 0.01 0.99
 North Carolina − 0.11* 0.89 0.25** 1.28 0.06 1.06
 North Dakota − 0.29** 0.74 0.00 1.00 − 0.03 0.97
 Ohio − 0.08 0.93 0.09 1.09 0.10 1.11
 Oklahoma − 0.24*** 0.79 0.05 1.05 0.01 1.01
 Oregon − 0.14** 0.87 − 0.07 0.93 0.08 1.09
 Rhode Island − 0.05 0.95 0.32 1.38 − 0.05 0.95
 South Carolina − 0.17** 0.84 0.43*** 1.54 0.05 1.06
 South Dakota − 0.38** 0.69 − 0.19 0.83 0.24 1.27
 Tennessee − 0.18** 0.84 0.20* 1.22 0.29*** 1.34
 Texas − 0.06 0.94 0.12 1.13 0.08 1.09
 Utah − 0.03 0.97 0.11 1.11 0.11 1.12
 Vermont 0.01 1.01 0.19 1.21 − 0.05 0.95
 Virginia − 0.01 0.99 0.15 1.17 − 0.14* 0.87
 Washington − 0.01 0.99 − 0.06 0.94 − 0.05 0.95
 West Virginia − 0.18 0.84 − 0.08 0.92 0.12 1.13
 Wisconsin − 0.08 0.93 0.09 1.09 0.05 1.06
 Wyoming − 0.24 0.79 − 0.15 0.86 − 0.26 0.77
Year
 Base: 2003
 2004 − 0.05 0.95 0.00 1.00 0.00 1.00
 2005 0.00 1.00 − 0.08 0.92 0.00 1.00
 2006 − 0.03 0.97 − 0.06 0.95 0.05 1.05
 2007 − 0.07** 0.93 − 0.09 0.92 − 0.09 0.92
 2008 − 0.06 0.94 − 0.07 0.93 − 0.11** 0.89
 2009 0.00 1.00 − 0.15** 0.86 0.00 1.00
 2010 0.04 1.04 − 0.18*** 0.84 − 0.10* 0.90
 2011 − 0.02 0.98 − 0.20*** 0.82 − 0.01 0.99
 2012 − 0.01 0.99 − 0.18*** 0.83 − 0.03 0.97
 2013 0.00 1.00 − 0.17*** 0.85 − 0.10* 0.91
 2014 − 0.01 0.99 − 0.18*** 0.84 0.04 1.04
 2015 0.02 1.03 − 0.23*** 0.80 − 0.01 0.99
 2016 0.00 1.00 − 0.07 0.94 − 0.03 0.97
 2017 0.02 1.02 − 0.12* 0.89 − 0.07 0.93
Day of week
 Base: Wednesday
 Monday 0.00 1.00 − 0.05 0.96 − 0.14*** 0.87
 Tuesday 0.04 1.04 − 0.04 0.96 − 0.11*** 0.89
 Thursday 0.01 1.01 0.06 1.07 0.00 1.00
 Friday − 0.02 0.98 0.33*** 1.39 0.11*** 1.11
Constant 2.94 4.11 2.49
R2 = 0.4229 R2 = 0.1191 R2 = 0.0565

Stars indicate significance: *p < 0.10; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01