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. 2020 Sep 5;48(5):2461–2491. doi: 10.1007/s11116-020-10136-6

Table 6.

Odds ratios from multinomial logistic regression for peak travel outcome (US knowledge workers on workday 2003–2017; n = 24,392)

(Bases: no peak travel) Work-related travel Maintenance travel Discretionary travel
Morning only Evening only Both peaks Morning only Evening only Both peaks Morning only Evening only Both peaks
Duration of work in minutes 1.002*** 1.001*** 1.003*** 0.998*** 0.997*** 0.996*** 0.998*** 0.998*** 0.996***
Work location (base: workplace only)
 Home only 0.01*** 0.02*** 0.01*** 0.49*** 0.53*** 0.28*** 0.86 0.62*** 0.44**
 Other home only 0.25*** 1.12 0.2*** 1.12 0.83 0.93 1.01 0.34** 0.56
 Café/library only 0.32*** 0.94 0.23*** 1.16 0.57 0.16*** 0.86 0.92 0.00***
 Vehicle only 0.16*** 1.00 0.05*** 0.12** 0.61 0.96 0.92 0.60 0.00***
 Unspecified 0.32*** 0.54*** 0.22*** 0.88 1.10 0.88 1.29 0.89 1.97*
 Workplace and home only 0.65*** 1.12 0.58*** 1.25*** 0.99 1.31*** 1.36** 0.93 1.06
 Workplace and other home only 0.40** 1.75 0.86 1.66 1.78 2.58*** 0.41 1.24 2.18
 Workplace and café/library only 0.95 1.20 1.27 0.71 0.83 1.02 0.91 0.72 1.35
 Workplace and vehicle only 0.49** 1.46 0.77 0.55* 1.30 0.79 1.36 0.55 0.46
 Workplace and unspecified only 0.93 1.42 1.00 1.10 1.29 1.69** 0.65 1.08 5.49***
 Workplace and 2 or more 0.51*** 1.78** 0.77 1.27 1.00 1.35 1.71 1.31 2.11
 Home, not work and 1 or more 0.12*** 0.68* 0.05*** 0.92 0.98 0.80 0.99 0.77 1.38
Employment characteristics
Is paid hourly 0.68*** 0.82** 0.63*** 0.90 0.91** 0.80*** 1.30*** 0.99 1.35
Is part time 0.66*** 1.14 0.35*** 0.90 0.70*** 0.63*** 0.93 0.88 0.68
Has multiple jobs 0.82* 1.26* 1.00 1.05 0.98 0.86 1.21 1.08 1.12
Is government worker 1.46*** 1.28* 1.19* 0.90 1.23*** 1.12 0.96 1.18** 1.21
Is nonprofit worker 1.24** 1.35** 1.22* 0.91 1.07 1.04 0.95 1.10 1.96*
Occupations
 Base: Office/admin
 Management 1.05 1.13 0.96 1.01 1.05 0.88 0.92 0.98 0.98
 Business and financial 1.13 1.11 1.13 1.04 1.01 0.91 0.97 1.18 0.51*
 Computer and math. Science 1.00 1.17 1.07 0.78* 0.97 0.97 0.7 0.93 0.60
 Architecture and engineering 1.11 1.09 1.12 0.97 1.05 0.83 0.91 0.93 0.4*
 Life, physical, and social science 1.05 0.66 0.75 0.83 1.07 0.79 0.88 1.02 0.57
 Community and social service 0.85 0.97 0.83 1.07 0.84 0.79 1.12 0.94 0.39*
 Legal occupations 1.68** 1.05 1.54** 0.70* 0.85 0.95 1.37 1.22 1.63
 Education, training, and library 1.22 0.96 0.86 0.93 1.12 0.82 0.94 0.86 0.89
 Arts, design, ent, sports 0.85 1.09 0.74* 0.81 1.06 0.70* 0.48** 0.59*** 1.10
 Healthcare practitioner/technical 0.83* 1.03 0.57*** 0.83 0.84* 0.66*** 1.02 0.7*** 0.58
 Sales and related 0.96 1.29** 0.80** 1.00 0.88 0.65*** 1.18 0.88 0.85
Industries
 Base: Prof. and business services
 Agriculture 0.60 0.60 0.45* 0.66 1.08 0.85 0.53 1.24 2.23
 Mining 1.53 2.03 3.18 0.25*** 0.56* 0.25*** 0.20 0.86 1.27
 Construction 1.12 1.36 1.40 0.62** 0.98 0.62** 0.67 1.22 1.11
 Manufacturing 0.93 0.91 0.84 0.74*** 1.10 0.92 0.74 1.00 0.68
 Wholesale and retail trade 0.53*** 0.70** 0.53*** 0.74** 0.86 0.77** 1.10 0.82* 0.51*
 Transportation and utilities 0.48*** 0.71* 0.45*** 0.78 0.92 0.87 1.06 0.83 0.71
 Information 0.66*** 0.67** 0.78* 0.98 0.75** 0.68** 0.86 0.88 0.47
 Financial activities 1.05 0.88 1.13 0.86 0.97 1.07 0.90 1.01 0.62
 Education and health services 1.00 0.81 0.95 0.88 0.92 0.87 1.02 1.10 0.53*
 Leisure and hospitality 0.41*** 0.77 0.33*** 0.65** 0.63*** 0.43*** 1.04 0.77 0.55
 Other services 0.86 1.16 0.80 1.00 0.99 0.77 1.72* 0.97 0.41
 Public administration 0.77* 1.03 1.08 0.79 0.79** 0.85 0.89 0.76** 0.27***
Education
 Base: High school or less
 Associates degree 0.62*** 1.00 0.60*** 0.90 0.83*** 0.76*** 0.88 0.82** 0.83
 Some college 0.76*** 1.09 0.70*** 1.07 1.01 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.82
 College degree or more 0.94 0.96 0.96 1.04 1.03 0.99 0.96 0.91 0.86
Family/demographic characteristics
Is married 0.93 1.31** 1.25** 1.27** 0.97 1.42*** 1.00 0.76*** 0.82
Number of children 1.13*** 0.96 1.06 1.31*** 1.04 1.45*** 0.90 0.95 1.27
Family income
 Base: Less than 50 K
 50 K to 100 K 0.96 0.96 0.92 0.97 0.90* 0.90 0.92 0.91 1.10
 More than 100 K 0.91 0.84* 0.88* 1.04 1.01 0.99 1.17 1.12* 1.25
Is female 1.26*** 1.00 1.20** 1.13 1.30*** 2.13*** 0.84 0.85** 1.59
Race/Ethnicity
 Base: White non-Latino
 Black non-Latino 0.81*** 0.86 0.64*** 1.28*** 0.87** 0.95 0.97 0.96 1.54*
 Latino any race 0.79*** 0.98 0.81** 1.18* 0.87* 1.12 0.89 0.97 0.81
 Other 0.66*** 0.75** 0.75*** 0.96 0.90 0.83* 1.03 0.78** 0.36
Female * number of children 0.99 0.90 0.88** 1.46*** 1.15*** 1.54*** 1.09 0.98 0.62**
Female * married 1.62*** 1.06 1.28** 0.83 1.07 0.68*** 0.76 1.24** 1.02
Age in years 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99** 1.01 0.99*** 1.01
Location and time
In metropolitan area 0.99 1.11 1.11 0.85* 0.96 0.94 1.08 0.84** 0.69
State
 Base: Pennsylvania
 Alabama 1.09 0.77 1.00 1.01 1.67*** 1.28 1.06 0.86 1.72
 Alaska 2.38 2.67 2.74* 3.37*** 2.20* 1.41 0.35 0.63 14.6***
 Arizona 0.92 0.89 1.05 0.65* 0.89 0.86 2.16* 0.87 1.87
 Arkansas 0.85 0.88 1.04 1.10 0.95 1.06 1.21 0.93 3.99*
 California 1.11 1.01 1.07 1.38** 1.00 1.05 1.07 0.91 0.59
 Colorado 1.26 1.30 1.22 1.82*** 1.39** 1.03 0.57 0.68** 2.41
 Connecticut 1.34 1.24 1.02 1.11 1.05 1.17 1.29 0.85 1.41
 Delaware 0.82 1.29 1.18 0.56 1.00 0.59 1.39 0.48 0.00***
 District of Columbia 1.76 0.99 1.49 0.78 1.15 1.55 0.79 0.58 1.67
 Florida 1.26 1.04 1.22 1.26 1.09 1.07 1.32 0.76* 1.44
 Georgia 0.96 0.72 0.99 1.33 0.89 0.84 1.02 0.95 0.87
 Hawaii 1.26 1.36 0.73 2.29* 2.05* 0.98 0.82 0.67 0.00***
 Idaho 2.06* 2.80** 2.15** 0.50 0.78 0.44** 3.01** 1.06 1.00
 Illinois 1.15 1.02 1.14 1.28 1.24 1.10 1.45 0.94 1.84
 Indiana 1.38 1.18 1.56** 0.97 1.08 0.95 0.38** 1.18 1.21
 Iowa 0.88 0.84 0.89 1.23 1.22 1.04 1.19 0.84 2.14
 Kansas 1.37 1.38 1.82** 1.68** 1.14 1.85** 0.65 0.77 0.37
 Kentucky 1.07 1.03 1.01 1.11 1.10 1.31 1.34 1.15 0.91
 Louisiana 1.22 0.73 1.28 1.07 1.35 1.18 0.86 0.94 1.32
 Maine 1.22 0.34* 0.87 1.28 0.96 1.19 0.40 0.52* 0.00***
 Maryland 1.75*** 1.77** 1.72** 0.89 0.95 0.79 0.95 0.82 0.61
 Massachusetts 1.37 0.89 1.41 1.29 1.02 0.92 1.02 0.69** 1.26
 Michigan 0.89 0.66* 0.86 0.86 1.14 1.09 0.86 1.10 0.82
 Minnesota 1.39* 1.26 1.30 1.00 1.23 0.92 0.91 0.94 1.46
 Mississippi 1.41 0.91 1.14 1.09 0.93 1.65* 1.70 1.17 1.00
 Missouri 1.36 0.89 1.12 1.44* 1.67*** 1.24 1.01 0.96 0.80
 Montana 2.27* 1.16 1.75 0.97 0.51* 1.11 0.30 1.21 0.00***
 Nebraska 1.04 0.84 1.29 1.02 1.12 1.36 0.90 0.82 1.98
 Nevada 0.80 1.30 1.02 0.95 1.03 0.76 0.39 0.67 1.02
 New Hampshire 1.49 1.08 0.72 1.64 1.56* 1.48 0.19** 0.93 1.15
 New Jersey 1.47* 1.33 1.49** 1.24 0.94 1.05 0.82 0.66** 0.85
 New Mexico 1.41 0.56 1.33 1.63 1.27 1.05 1.18 0.96 1.40
 New York 1.12 1.12 0.92 1.21 0.95 1.09 1.03 0.89 0.97
 North Carolina 1.18 0.89 0.97 1.45* 1.42** 1.46* 1.07 0.95 2.12
 North Dakota 0.91 0.28 1.18 0.76 1.15 0.81 1.35 1.48 1.15
 Ohio 0.99 1.06 1.03 1.16 1.26* 1.01 1.00 0.97 1.99
 Oklahoma 2.06*** 1.33 1.50 1.06 1.31 1.31 1.26 1.05 2.25
 Oregon 1.34 0.92 1.30 0.78 1.08 1.10 0.82 1.06 1.56
 Rhode Island 2.42** 0.68 2.18* 1.62 1.69* 1.28 1.68 0.58 0.00***
 South Carolina 1.29 0.91 0.86 1.15 1.84*** 1.65** 1.65 1.01 0.19
 South Dakota 1.06 1.27 1.51 1.91 0.72 1.28 1.18 1.40 0.71
 Tennessee 1.16 0.72 0.84 1.43 1.34* 0.99 1.49 1.23 3.46*
 Texas 1.31* 1.02 1.20 1.16 1.17 1.06 0.97 1.06 1.60
 Utah 1.00 0.88 0.90 0.74 1.11 0.46** 2.10* 0.80 2.08
 Vermont 3.04* 4.66** 3.46* 0.71 1.05 0.55 0.96 0.70 0.00***
 Virginia 1.38* 0.83 1.27 1.17 1.10 1.05 0.85 0.82 0.71
 Washington 1.07 0.98 0.90 1.05 1.09 1.15 1.00 1.10 0.91
 West Virginia 1.13 0.59 1.01 1.63 1.11 1.32 1.61 0.98 3.96
 Wisconsin 1.63** 1.50 1.22 1.10 1.35* 0.96 1.59 0.96 1.73
 Wyoming 2.01 3.22 3.30* 0.84 0.78 0.89 2.64 0.53 0.00***
Year
 Base: 2003
 2004 0.73*** 0.78 0.81* 1.21 0.87 1.05 1.20 0.87 1.18
 2005 0.96 1.05 0.87 1.08 0.91 0.90 0.77 0.99 0.93
 2006 1.05 1.08 0.90 1.11 1.07 1.19 1.00 1.11 1.16
 2007 0.76** 0.86 0.77** 1.03 0.95 0.82 0.82 0.89 0.68
 2008 0.85 0.68** 0.84 1.23 1.04 1.12 1.12 0.80** 0.80
 2009 0.90 0.92 0.80* 1.08 0.84* 0.90 1.17 1.05 1.03
 2010 1.10 1.16 1.06 0.97 0.90 0.85 1.05 0.90 1.48
 2011 0.93 1.11 0.91 1.12 0.86 0.74** 1.38 1.00 1.03
 2012 0.82 0.73* 0.79** 1.07 0.87 0.89 0.79 0.99 0.77
 2013 0.85 0.86 0.82 1.03 0.96 0.92 1.11 0.90 0.47
 2014 0.69*** 0.84 0.84 1.13 0.82** 0.78** 1.27 1.03 1.39
 2015 0.77** 0.87 0.75** 1.21 0.87 0.82 0.95 0.95 1.36
 2016 0.92 0.91 0.76** 1.18 1.10 1.00 0.92 0.93 1.25
 2017 1.06 1.11 0.93 1.03 0.89 1.04 1.13 0.92 1.11
Day of week
 Base: Wednesday
 Monday 0.97 0.98 1.02 0.87 0.88* 0.95 0.91 0.77*** 1.06
 Tuesday 1.00 0.88 1.00 0.81*** 1.02 0.92 0.85 0.79*** 0.74
 Thursday 1.01 0.96 0.95 0.90 1.05 0.94 1.02 0.93 1.00
 Friday 0.96 0.89 0.89 0.99 1.38*** 1.13 0.97 0.95 1.10
Constant 1.16 0.46 0.68 0.41 2.06 1.38 0.08 1.65 0.08
Pseudo R2: 0.1371 Pseudo R2: 0.0663 Pseudo R2: 0.0336

Stars indicate significance: *p < 0.10; **p < 0.05; ***p < 0.01