Fig. 1.

Working model of the potential interplay between boredom and self-control within the context of a traditional ego-depletion study. Primary tasks are designed to be either low-control tasks (LCTs) or high-control tasks (HCTs). For example, the congruent Stroop is frequently used as an LCT, and the incongruent Stroop is frequently used as an HCT (Wolff, Baumann, & Englert, 2018). In the published literature, the duration of the primary task (horizontal arrow in the middle) varies greatly among studies (Giboin & Wolff, 2019). For example, the primary task might consist of 50 Stroop trials (e.g., Job, Dweck, & Walton, 2010) or 300 Stroop trials (e.g., Govorun & Payne, 2006). The model proposes that task characteristics change as function of task duration and that this in turn leads to changes in task-imposed self-control demands and task-induced boredom. The red rectangles depict self-control demands, and the green rectangles depict task-induced boredom. The gradient highlights increasing/decreasing self-control demands or task-induced boredom. We propose that understimulation in LCTs leads to increases in the self-control that is needed to keep attention on track while working on a boring task. On the other hand, HCTs might be boring at the beginning because of overstimulation and at the end because of understimulation. The figure is schematic and meant to illustrate dynamic changes in task-imposed self-control and task-induced boredom as a function of task duration. We suggest that these changes distinctively contribute to the outcome behavior. This contribution is illustrated by the paths that connect boredom and self-control demands with subsequent self-control performance. In terms of a cost–benefit analysis, boredom signals whether one should seek out a more rewarding behavioral alternative (“change behavior”), and the perceived costs of self-control signal whether one should avoid investing further effort (“avoid effort”). Whether or not an ego-depletion effect is observed should then depend on the separate and multiplicative effects of both pathways on performance in the secondary task. For example, an increase in boredom is expected to instigate behavioral change but also increase the self-control demands that are required to keep attention on track. Both components of the meaning-and-attention-components model (Westgate & Wilson, 2018) are integrated in the proposed working model: Depending on the meaning that one attributes to the task, the experience of boredom and the allocation of self-control can vary. Finally, the ego-depletion effect is likely moderated by individual differences. We propose that trait self-control and boredom proneness are likely to moderate the ego-depletion effect.