Table 3. Unadjusted and Covariate-Adjusted Estimates of the Effect of Pharmacy type on Quality of Medication Use.

Variables	Quality Measures
	Adherence to Noninsulin Diabetes Medications	Adherence to Renin-Angiotensin System Antagonist Medications	Adherence to Statins	Use of High-Risk Medicationsb (≥65 y)	Statin Use in Persons with Diabetesc
Unadjusted model pharmacy typea
Traditional	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Telepharmacy	0.6 (0.4–0.8) [.001]	1.1 (0.8–1.4) [.60]	1.0 (0.7–1.7) [.84]	0.9 (0.8–1.1) [.20]	0.9 (0.7–1.3) [.80]
Covariate adjusted model pharmacy typea
Traditional	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Telepharmacy	0.8 (0.5–1.3) [.42]	1.0 (0.9–1.2) [.70]	1.3 (0.8–2.1) [.30]	1.3 (1.0–1.8) [.06]	1.7 (1.3–2.0) [<.001]
Patient sex
Male	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Female	1.4 (0.9–2.1) [.15]	0.7 (0.6–1.0) [.02]	0.9 (0.8–1.1) [.02]	1.1 (0.8–1.5) [.71]	0.3 (0.2–0.5) [<.001]
Age group
18–49	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	—	—
50–64	3.2 (1.5–7.2) [.004]	1.8 (1.3–2.5) [.001]	2.1 (1.7–2.4) [<.001]	—	—
65–74	6.9 (2.5–16.5) [<.001]	2.5 (1.8–3.3) [<.001]	2.6 (2.2–3.2) [<.001]	1 [Reference]	—
≥65	—	—	—	—	3.9 (2.2–7.2) [<.001]
<65	—	—	—	—	1 [Reference]
>74	2.3 (1.4–3.7) [<.001]	2.2 (1.6–3.2) [.001]	2.2 (1.6–2.9) [<.001]	0.8 (0.6–1.0) [.03]	—
Patient location
Urban	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Rural	0.4 (0.3–0.6) [<.001]	1.3 (1.1–1.6) [.005]	0.7 (0.5–0.9) [<.003]	0.9 (0.6–1.2) [.40]	0.7 (0.5–1.1) [.11]
Patient riskd
Low	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Moderate	0.8 (0.4–1.9) [.69]	1.1 (0.7–1.5).80	0.9 (0.6–1.3) [.50]	5.5 (2.9–10.4) [<.001]	1.2 (0.7–2.1) [.49]
High	1.3 (0.5–3.3) [.52]	0.9 (0.7–1.1) [.40]	1.3 (1.0–1.5) [.02]	19.7 (10.6–36.3) [<.001]	2.1 (1.6–2.8) [<.001]
Payer
Medicaid	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Other	3.9 (2.1–6.9) [<.001]	1.9 (1.1–3.1) [<.02]	2.1 (1.2–3.8) [.01]	1.0 (0.4–2.2) [.94]	0.4 (0.3–0.6) [<.001]
Pharmacy pair
Pair 3	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]	1 [Reference]
Pair 2	3.1 (1.7–5.6) [.001]	1.7 (1.5–1.9) [<.001]	1.3 (1.0–1.7) [.08]	1.1 (1.0–1.3) [.13]	0.8 (0.7–1.0) [.01]
Pair 1	1.6 (0.9–2.9) [.14]	1.3 (1.1–1.4) [<.001]	0.6 (0.5–0.7) [<.001]	1.3 (1.1–1.5) [.01]	—

Abbreviation: — , not applicable.

^a All values are odds ratio (95% CI) and [P value].

^b Use of high-risk medications applies only to patients aged 65 or older, as per measure specifications.

^c Age groups combined for model development; no assessment for pharmacy Pair 1.

^d Tercile-based stratification of the medication count for measure-eligible patients; varies for each quality measure.