Table 5.
Summary of articles on BCI-based applications for immersion, creativity and emotional skills.
| Study (year) | Sample | Study contents | Key findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dennis and Hajcak (2009) | 20 children 5–10 years old, younger children (aged 5–6) N = 10 and older children (aged 7–10) N = 10 with 5 boys and 5 girls in each age group. | 30 developmentally appropriate pictures were selected from the International Affective Picture System while EEG was being recorded using a BCI system appropriately designed. 64 electrodes were placed on the scalp based on the 10–20 system in addition to 2 more electrodes on the left and right mastoids to generate the reports. | No significant gender differences emerged. The study demonstrates that a strategy that controls cognitive emotion could moderate childrens' LPP. Significant interaction between Interpretation Type and Child Gender F(1,16) = 5.32, p < .05, partial η2 = .25. Significant Interpretation Type by Child Gender and by Child Age interaction. F(1,16) = 5.05, p < .05, partial η2 = .24 |
| Friedrich et al., (2015) | 13 children with ASD (6–17 years old) Group1 N = 6, Group2 N = 7 |
16 1h NFT sessions 2–3 times per week during 6–10 weeks. Subjects were pseudo-randomly assigned to one of two training groups. During these sessions the children played a Social Mirroring Game, controling the game by enhancing mu power. | Overall, the Social Mirroring Game was successful at engaging children with ASD during NFT and produced positive effects on all measures. Children displayed significantly more correct responses in the emotion recognition task. Mu Power: F1,11 = 52.6, p < .01, η2 = .83 Theta and Beta: F1,11 = 57.4/38.3, p < .01, η2 = .84/.77 |
| Gruzelier et al., (2014a) | 33 11-year olds were randomised to 10 sessions and divided into three groups (Ν = 11 in each): A/T training, SMR training and a non-training control group. | For SMR training the active scalp electrode was placed over sensory-motor cortex at Cz, the standard placement for the process. For A/T training children relaxed with their eyes closed and an active electrode at Pz, a standard placement for measuring alpha and theta. | Rehearsed performance: Group Χ Time F(2, 27) = 3.313, p = 0.05; A/T t(9) = 2.18,p = 0.057; SMR t(8) = 0.39; control t(10) = 0.89. Creativity scale: Group Χ Time (F(2, 27) = 6.224, p = 0.006. Communication subscale: Group Χ Time F(2,27) = 11.326, p = 0.001) Decrease in commission errors (F(2, 26) = 20.36, p = 0.001; A/T t(8) = 4.47, p = 0.002; SMR t(6) = 1.98, p = 0.095; controls t(9) = 1.71, ns) |
| Gruzelier et al., 2014b | 64 conservatoire students in their first year of BA contemporary dance. Four groups: Alpha–theta neurofeedback (AT) N = 18, Heart-rate variability (HRV), Choreology Studies, No-intervention control. | Randomised study. Four groups: A/T NF, HRV, Choreology Studies, No-intervention control. 10-session 20 min long protocol. |
Linear decrease in alpha values (F 1,9 = 9.2, p < 0.05) and linear increase in theta values (F 1,9 = 9.8, p < 0.05). Heart rate variability: (Linear, F 1,8 = 6.227, p 0.037 < Quadratic, F = 2.10, ns). Dance performance ratings ratings ranged between r = .54 to r = .67, p's < .001. Mood: the only group difference was in Anxiety (F3,60 = 2.82, p < .04; Depression, F = 0.39; Stress, F = 1.37). Cognitive creativity: t-tests confirming a greater increase for the AT group compared with the CG (t30 = 3.2, p < .01). |
| Leventon et al., 2014 | 46 school age children 5–8 years old. Children were divided into two age groups: younger N = 24 11 girls; Mage = 6.23 years, range = 5.42–7.50 years and older N = 22 13 girls; Mage = 8.08 years, range = 7.58–8.92 years | 164 child-appropriate images were selected from the International Affective Picture System. Study consisted of two sessions separated by 24 h. EEG data in Sessions 1 and 2 were collected using an EEG cap with 32-shielded Ag/AgCl electrodes. | For valence ratings, a main effect of emotion condition was observed, F(1.38,37.35) = 43.56, p < .001, pη2 = .617, emotion condition significantly influenced heart rate responses to the images, F(2,68) = 4.21, p = .02. |
| Martínez et al., 2016 | The study observed children specifically invited to this study as well as children currently undergoing behavioral therapy. | A case-based study conducted to examine and gain an understanding of the emotions expressed by children with ADHD, which were invited to play physical and digital game forms of the Stroop and Flanker tests as well as memory-based games, practicing memory, attention and reasoning skills. | Affection states related to engagement, frustration, meditation and excitement were decoded from EEG data, video analysis and scores obtained from the gameplay. Implementing neurofeedback in the everyday school environment school showed to be achievable with great educational potential. |
| Schoneveld et al., 2016 | 750 children 7–13 ys old. Randomized controlled study N = 136. Mindlight group n = 69 Max group n = 67 Younger girls (grade 3 and 4), older girls (grade 5 and 6), younger boys (grade 3 and 4) and older boys (grade 5 and 6). | Children use Microsoft Xbox 360 controller and a one-channel dry-sensor EEG headset that transforms the raw EEG values and converts them to gradations in a light placed on the head of the avatar's game (Mindlight). The ‘mindlight’ shines brighter, the more relaxed the user feels. | Pretest anxiety scores (total anxiety: t(132) = -4.18, p = 0.000; personalized anxiety: t(132) = -2.55, p = 0.012; maternal report: t(115) = -2.12, p = 0.036; paternal report: t(92) = -1.51, p = 0.135), all posttest anxiety scores (total anxiety: t(122) = -3.47, p = 0.001; personalized anxiety: t(122) = -2.89, p = 0.005; maternal report: t(60) = -2.24, p = 0.029; paternal report: t(53) = -2.13, p = 0.038) |
| Verkijika and De Wet 2015 | 36 participants 9–16 years old The average age of the participants was 14.06 years with a standard deviation of 2.08. | Each subject was expected to complete two sessions. The research edition of the Emotiv EPOC BCI device was used. The scope was to determine whether using a BCI mathematics educational game could help students to reduce effectively math anxiety. The participants had to play two levels of the Math-Mind Game. | The effect of math anxiety can be trained and decreased with a BCI-based mathematics educational game providing a home based solution for reducing math anxiety. |
LPP: Late Positive Potential; A/T: Alpha–theta; HRV: Heart-rate variability; EEG: electroencephalogram; ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder; ADHD: attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; NF: neurofeedback; NFT: neurofeedback training; BCI: brain computer interface; SMR: sensorimotor rhythms; ERPs: Event-Related Potentials; BA: bachelor of arts; Ag/AgCl: Silver/Silver Chloride; CG: control group.