Table 2.
Effect sizes and key characteristics of studies included in the meta-analysis.
| Study (year) | Training description | Training categorya | Training settingb | N of children (T/C) | Effect size (Hedges's g) | Study designc | Outcome measure | Outcome categoryd | Agee | Sexf |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frick et al. (2009): overall | 1 | 3 (school but not the original classroom) | 32 | 0.311 | 1 | Water tilting task | 5 | 2 | 1, 2 | |
| Frick et al. (2009): treatment 1 | Visibly executed movement in the water tilting task (manual tilting task) | |||||||||
| Frick et al. (2009): treatment 2 | Seeing but not executing movement in the water tilting task (visible but regulated by means of remote control tilting task) | |||||||||
| Frick et al. (2009): treatment 3 | Executing but not seeing movement in the water tilting task (blind tilting task) | |||||||||
| Frick et al. (2009): control | Not perceiving any movement in the water tilting task (static judgment task) | |||||||||
| Tzuriel and Egozi (2010): overall | Visuospatial representation and transformation program based on Quick Draws activities | 2 | 2 | 60/56 | 0.582 | 3 | PMA—Spatial Relations (SR) subtest; WT | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Ping et al. (2011): overall | 1 | 1 | 2.066 | 3 | CMTT; MROT | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 | ||
| Ping et al. (2011): treatment 1 | Using gesture to rotate objects on a computer screen | 22 | ||||||||
| Ping et al. (2011): treatment 2 | Turning a joystick to rotate objects on a computer screen | 20 | ||||||||
| Ping et al. (2011): control | No training | 21 | ||||||||
| Goldin-Meadow et al. (2012): overall | Performing a Move gesture as compared to observing a Move gesture | 3 | 1 | 78/80 | 0.211 | 3 | Mental transformation task (piece cards and choice card) | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Keren et al. (2012): overall | Playing with Kindergarten Assistive Robotics (KAR) through a musical game | 1 | 2 | 9 | 1.539 | 1 | Acquisition of spatial–motor knowledge measured using a metaphor of movement velocity | 5 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Nachtigäller et al. (2013): overall | Comprehending the preposition UNDER with six object sets, with the word UNDER embedded in a narrative context | 3 | 1 | 20/20 | 0.386 | 3 | Performance of the spatial relations UNDER and ON | 3 | 1 | 1, 2 |
| Chen et al. (2013): overall | 2 | 3 (medical center) | 0.655 | 3 | TVPS-3 | 3 | 2 | 1, 2 | ||
| Chen et al. (2013): treatment 1 | Multimedia visual perceptual group training program | 15 | ||||||||
| Chen et al. (2013): treatment 2 | Multimedia visual perceptual individual training program | 15 | ||||||||
| Chen et al. (2013): treatment 3 | Paper visual perceptual group training | 19 | ||||||||
| Chen et al. (2013): control | No visual perceptual training | 15 | ||||||||
| Möhring and Frick (2013): overall | Manual exploration of the object | 1 | 1 | 20/20 | 0.909 | 2 | Mental rotation test (looking time) | 2 | 1 | 1, 2 |
| Henry et al. (2014): overall | 2 | 3 (school but not the original classroom) | 0.862 | 3 | Odd One Out Span | 1 | 2 | 3 | ||
| Henry et al. (2014): treatment | 10 min working memory intervention tasks, three times a week, for a total of 6 weeks | 18 | ||||||||
| Henry et al. (2014): control | Equal one-to-one attention but simpler versions of the tasks, with no requirement for memory storage | 17 | ||||||||
| Chabani and Hommel (2014): overall | Tangram problem solving with visual prompts | 3 | 1 | 99/94 | 0.282 | 3 | Tangram puzzles | 5 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Frick and Wang (2014): overall | Acting upon the turntable themselves (self-turning condition) | 1 | 1 | 14/14 | 0.091 | 2 | Sensitivity to spatial object relations (mean looking times) | 2 | 1 | 1, 2 |
| Hawes et al. (2015): overall | Computerized mental rotation games (playing three games that were all housed within an application in iPad) | 1 | 2 | 32/29 | 1.297 | 3 | CMTT; Visual–Spatial Puzzle Task; tests of 2D and 3D mental rotation | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Metin and Aral (2016): overall | Project-based education for supporting visual perception | 2 | 2 | 22/22 | 1.519 | 3 | MVPT-3 | 3 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Xu and LeFevre (2016): overall | Non-numerical spatial training (i.e., decomposition of shapes) | 3 | 3 | 42/42 | 0.553 | 3 | 2D mental transformation task | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Hawes et al. (2017): overall | A 32-week teacher-led spatial reasoning intervention (i.e., geometry lessons and quick challenge spatial activities) | 2 | 2 | 39/28 | 2.702 | 3 | Spatial language test; visual–spatial geometry test; CMTT | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Borriello and Liben (2018): overall | Conversational instructions for guiding parents to engage their children in spatial play | 1 | 1 | 19/22 | 0.496 | 2 | Spatial language coded | 5 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Levine et al. (2018): overall | 3 | 3 (school but not the original classroom) | 0.359 | 3 | Mental transformation task (piece cards and choice card) | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 | ||
| Levine et al. (2018): treatment 1 | Making a motor movement that is relevant to the mental transformation through action (concrete training) | 41 | ||||||||
| Levine et al. (2018): treatment 2 | Making a motor movement that is relevant to the mental transformation through gestural movements (abstract training) | 38 | ||||||||
| Levine et al. (2018): control | Point-gesture training | 35 | ||||||||
| Yeterge et al. (2019): overall | Creative drama as an approach to sensory integration education | 2 | 2 | 17/17 | 0.867 | 3 | FVPT | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Cornu et al. (2019): overall | A tablet-based visuospatial intervention, with many different tasks targeting different aspects of visuospatial skills | 2 | 2 | 68/57 | 0.136 | 3 | Spatial orientation measure adapted from FVPT; CMTT | 1, 2 | 2 | 1, 2 |
| Bower et al. (2020): overall | Constructing puzzles to match a model composed of various geometric shapes | 3 | 3 (school but not the original classroom) | 2.053 | 3 | 2D TOSA; 3D TOSA | 2 | 2 | 1, 2 | |
| Bower et al. (2020): treatment 1 | Giving modeling and feedback | 46 | ||||||||
| Bower et al. (2020): treatment 2 | Giving gesture feedback | 48 | ||||||||
| Bower et al. (2020): treatment 3 | Giving spatial language feedback | 47 | ||||||||
| Bower et al. (2020): control | No feedback | 46 |
T, training group; C, control group; CMTT, Children's Mental Transformation Task; MROT, Mental Rotation Task; TVPS-3, Test of Visual Perception Skills, 3rd Edition; PMA, Primary Mental Abilities; WT, Windows Test; CMTT, Children's Mental Transformation Task; MVPT, Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, 3rd Edition; FVPT, Frostig Visual Perception Test; TOSA, Test of Spatial Assembly.
a
1 = video game/play/hands-on operation; 2 = classroom-based course; 3 = spatial task training.
b
1 = lab; 2 = classroom; 3 = others.
c
1 = within subjects; 2 = between subjects; 3 = mixed.
d
1 = intrinsic, static; 2 = intrinsic, dynamic; 3 = extrinsic, static; 4 = extrinsic, dynamic; 5 = measure that spans cells.
e
1 = 0–3 years; 2 = 4–8 years.
f
1 = female; 2 = male; 3 = not specified.